AP UNITED STATES HISTORY THE GREAT DEPRESSION AND THE NEW DEAL

TOPIC AND TERMS PEOPLE Franklin D. Roosevelt Eleanor Roosevelt Harry Hopkins Frances Perkins Father Coughlin Huey Long Mary McLeod Bethune Harold Ickes John L. Lewis Alfred M. Landon VOCABULARY boondoggling parity TERMS New Deal Brain Trust Hundred Days the “three Rs” Glass-Steagall Act Civilian Conservation Corps Works Progress Administration National Recovery Act Schechter case Public Works Administration Agricultural Adjustment Act Dust Bowl Securities and Exchange Commission Tennessee Valley Authority Federal Housing Authority Social Security Act Wagner Act National Labor Relations Board Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) Liberty League Roosevelt coalition Court-packing plan Keynesianism

AP EUROPEAN HISTORY: THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION

FOCUS QUESTIONS 1. What were some of the results of Russia’s industrialization in the 1890's? 2. What were the results of the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905)? 3. Why did the Russian people change their minds about their involvement in the war? 4. Describe the following: the Bolshevik revolution, Kerensky’s government, Lvov’s government, the Duma and Petrograd riot 5. Who vied with Stalin for power after the death of Lenin? 6. What did Lenin’s nationalities reform accomplish? 7. How did Stalin support industrialization in Russia. 8. What was Alexander III’s government policy? 9. Describe Lenin’s programs at the Russian Marxist Party Conferences. 10. What was the October Manifesto issued by Czar Nicholas II 11. What does “peace, land, and bread” refer to? 12. What were the accomplishments of the Bolsheviks after the October Revolution? 13. What is the difference between Trotsky and Stalin’s interpretation of Marxism? 14. What was the Comintern and what was its purpose?

AP EUROPEAN HISTORY: THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION

Chronology 1881-1894 Czar Alexander Russification 1890's industrialization Trans-Siberian Railroad proletariat Constitutional Democrats (Cadet) Narodniks slavophile Marrxists 1903 Russian Marxist Congress Vladimir Lenin Bolsheviks Mensheviks 1904-1905 Russo-Japanese War Manchuria Battle of Mukden Tsushima Straits Treaty of Portsmouth Theodore Roosevelt Revolution of 1905 Czar Nicholas II Father Gapon January22, 1905 Bloody Sunday Zemstvos Czar Alexander II October Manifesto Duma 1906 dissolution of the Duma kulaks (gulags) 1914 World War I Rasputin Czarina Alexandra 1915 Eastern Front 1916 assassination of Rasputin 1917 the March Revolution Petrograd Prince Georgii Lvov Alexander Kerensky abdication of the Czar soviets the October Revolution Leninist Doctrine storming of the Winter Palace Congress of Soviets Council of People’s Commissars Leon Trotsky Cheka OGPU NKVD MVD KGB 1918 Dictatorship of the Proletariat Russian pull out of WWI Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 1918-1922 Russian Civil War Red Army White Army 1924-1937 Russian Constitution Joseph Stalin First Five Year Plan Farm Collectivization Communes Second Five Year Plan Great Depression the purge trials gulags Siberia

HONORS GEOGRAPHY: METEOROLOGY

WINDS - the intense heat at the equator causes powerful convection - when air mass is warm, air molecules move faster - causing them to push outward and the air mass expands - just like our balloon example of parcels - that expansion causes drop in density - air mass is now lighter than surroundings - and the air parcel rises - that is what convection is - when air mass cools, the process is reversed - and the parcel sinks - this process is constantly taking place in our atmosphere - the sun provides the heat - which is not uniform or regular - there are many factors that effect how the sun heats the earth - the season - the latitude - the cloud cover - re-radiation from land or sea - winds - the air rises, cools and spreads - then starts to sink and return to the surface - where the air is rising, you have a low - where air is sinking, you have a high - since atmosphere is always trying to balance itself (equilibrium) - air moves from low to high pressure - always ins this direction, never reversed - this is better known as wind - think of an inflated balloon - but stop the air from escaping - inside is a pocket of high pressure - when air released, air moves from high to low - equalizing or balancing the air pressure difference - weather rule: the difference in air pressure over a horizontal distance - pressure gradient force - greater the diff in pressure b/t 2 air masses - the greater pressure gradient force and stronger the winds - isobars are sometimes used to indicate increments of air pressure - lines are drawn b/t points of equal pressure - these are isobars - closed isobar curves indicate high or low pressure - usually labeled with an H or L - air that rises at the equator eventually rises to the troposphere - approx. 10 km or 6 miles - it can rise no further - from there is spreads toward the poles - gradually cooling and sinking to middle latitudes - @ 30 degrees north and south - this sinking air causes a high pressure condition - bringing usually fair, dry conditions - most of the world’s deserts are located at these latitudes - some of this sinking air is forced out by the weight above - and returns to the low pressure at the equator - these are known as trade winds - at the equator the winds die out - these are called the doldrums - from old English word meaning dull - early sailors feared being stranded here - no wind to steer the ships - area b/t equator and 30 degrees N & S is called the Hadley Cell - after the guy who discovered these wind patterns - now, while some of the winds return from middle latitudes to equator - some actually continue to their respective poles - at approx. 60 degrees N & S this air meets cold polar air - areas where these two masses meet called polar fronts - diff. in temp b/t these 2 masses causes warmer air to rise - most of this air moves back toward the equator - sinking to the ground at the middle latitudes - contribute to high pressure in these regions - the circulation that occurs b/t 30 & 60 degrees is Ferrel Cells - after Wm Ferrel who identified them 1856 - the rest of the air that rises at polar front continues toward the poles - as it nears the poles, cools and sinks - and returns to 60 degrees N & S - these are Polar Hadley Cells - are weaker than tropical ones - b/c less solar energy reaches polar regions - the air d/n flow in a straight path north and south - this is b/c earth’s rotation causes any fluid object to appear to turn to the right of the direction of motion in the North - and to the left in the South - this effect is called the Coriolis Effect - after Gustave-Gaspard de Coriolis identified it in 1835 - this effect explains the flow of weather systems - causes N. Hem. winds to travel counter clockwise in high press. - & clockwise in the S. Hem. in low pressure - but lower pressure winds blow in the opposite direction - this is why winds in Ferrel Cells blow North from West to East - these are called Westerlies - in the South, Ferrel Cell winds blow east - called Easterlies - global air/wind patterns create principal winds systems - like the trades, westerlies, easterlies, - they also influence smaller scale winds - like monsoons - many areas experience these wet, warm rains - S.W United States, Chile - but strongest occur in S. Asia, N. Australia, Africa - monsoons bring tremendous amts of rain and causes massive flooding - floods have killed thousands of people in Bangladesh, India, SE Asia - the most dramatic, though, are in India - in winter, when sun is low in sky, - air over Siberia cools dramatically - cold air aloft is denser than warm air aloft - so it sinks, causing strong high pressure - this high pressure causes winds that blow over S over India - and out toward the sea - dissipating clouds and rain - in summer this high weakens significantly - developing a low pressure over N. India - draws warm, moist air in from Indian Ocean - producing heavy rain - small scale winds are result of localized diff. in pressure or temperature - ex: coastal areas, local winds may develop on clear sunny days - as sun heats the land, land heats up faster than water - air rises and is replaced by cooler air from sea - the sea breeze - generally occurs in sp ring and summer - when temp diffs. b/t land and sea are highest - the reverse occurs at night - land cools at a faster rate than water - air over the sea is still warm - which rises - air on land is pushed out to sea - the land breeze - as wind blows over mountains and sinks on other side - creates high pressure and clear skies - the compression of air also raises the temperature - resulting in a warm wind - there are several world examples of warm downslope winds - the Chinook on the east side of the Rockies - the Foehn in Switzerland - these winds rapidly melt snow and cause a rain shadow - winds forced through valleys strengthen - just like narrowing of a hose will create more jet stream power - in south of France wind formed by Rhone Valley - the Mistral - brings cold, dry and sqaully conditions from North - squall: short, intense thunderstorm - other winds result when intense heating of inland creates low pressure - the Sirocco - hot, dry winds to Mediterranean from Sahara Desert - pick up moisture from the sea - by time it reaches Europe, they are warm and humid - the Khamsin - also originates in the Sahara - brings hot, dry air to Southern Egypt - often devastates the crops there - The Jet Stream - high speed superhighway going from 80 to 190 mph - form because temperature differences below in lower atmosphere - creates higher pressure gradient aloft - greater the difference the faster, more powerful wind - that’s reason why jet stream strongest in winter - when temp contrast are greatest - high air pressure seeks low pressure - this movement is what causes wind - to find where the low is - place your back to the wind - on your left will be the low pressure system - on your right will be the high

AP UNITED STATES HISTORY: CHAPTER 32 POLITICS OF BOOM AND BUST 1920-1932

TOPIC AND TERMS Warren G. Harding Charles Evans Hughes Andrew W. Mellon Sen. Albert B. Fall Harry M. Daugherty “laissez-faire” economics William Howard Taft Adkins v. Children’s Hospital (1923) Esch-Cummins Transportation Act Merchant Marine Act Veteran’s Bureau Adjust ed Compensation Act Washington “Disarmament” Conference Five Power Naval Treaty Kellogg-Briand Pact Fordney-McCumber Tariff Teapot Dome Scandal Death of Harding Calvin Coolidge 1920's farm depression McNary-Haugen Bill/Coolidge Veto John W. Davis

AP UNITED STATES HISTORY: CHAPTER 32 POLITICS OF BOOM AND BUST 1920-1932

FOCUS QUESTIONS 1. “Old Guard” Returns a. This section the pro-business Republican administration of the 1920's, which favored small government and ended the push for “progressive” reforms. As with Grant after the Civil War, the authors spare little in their caustic description of the first of these presidents, Warren G. _________. Focus on the Supreme Court actions affecting the status of women that the authors term “anti-progressive.” Do you remember the Supreme Court’s reasoning in the 1908 Muller v. Oregon case when it came out in favor of special protection for women in the workplace? How and why was this view changed when similar protections were overturned in the case of Adkins v. Children’s Hospital? Should the law treat women and men completely equal? If so, why? If not, in what areas should women be treated differently? A. Muller v. Oregon (1908): B. Adkins v. Children’s Hospital (1923) C. Your view: 2. Harding Years, 1921-1923 a. This section highlights the growth of big business and the difficulties of labor unions during the 1920's. Note also a law passed in 1924 called the Adjusted ___________ Act that promised big benefits to World War I veterans in twenty years. Internationally, America returned to its isolationist roots in the 1920's. Not being part of the League of _________, the country signed a series of disarmament treaties, including the 1922 “______________-Power ____________ Treaty” (that limited U.S., British, and Japanese warship tonnage at a ratio of __________). Later in the decade, the idealistic _____________-Briand Pact, supposedly outlawing war, was signed. Higher American tariffs temporarily helped American business but hurt European economies trying to recover from the devastation of World War I. Corruption was also exposed in the Harding administration typified by Interior Secretary Albert B. ________ and the oil-related scandal called ____________ _________. After Harding’s death in 1923, the new president was the flinty, conservative, morally straight Calvin “______________ Cal” Coolidge from the state of ____________________. 3. Coolidge Years, 1923-1929 a. Farmers in the 1920's were in a depressed state a decade ahead of the rest of the nation. How did the end of wartime demand plus farm mechanization (symbolized by the new tractors) contribute to lower prices for farm products? b. (It’s important to have a general understanding of the structure of postwar debts and reparations because they contributed both to the onset of the Depression and to rise of Hitler in Germany.) Look at the flowchart on page 757. The U.S. insisted on getting its $_____ billion or so in war debts paid back from France and Britain. Because they couldn’t earn dollars by selling goods to the U.S., what was their main source of funds to repay these war debts? What happened in 1929 when Wall Street bankers started calling in the loans they had made to Germany under the 1924 ___________ Plan? 4. Hoover Years, 1929-1933 a. In the 1928 election, Republican Herbert Hoover defeated the first Catholic presidential nominee, Al _______________ of New ______. The authors use words like industry, thrift, self-reliance, integrity, and humanitarian, but also stiff, and thin-skinned to describe the apparently well-qualified Hoover, a self-made millionaire. With the 1929 Agricultural ____________ Act, Hoover moved modestly to help farm cooperatives help themselves, but soon afterwards, Congress passed the _____________-Smoot Tariff bill which raised average import duties to _______ percent. Why do the authors say that this move played “directly into the hands of a hate-filled German demagogue, Adolf Hitler”? 5. Crash and Depression a. The chart on page 761 shows that the value of common stocks declined by _____ percent between its high when the market crashed on “Black _________” in October 19___ and its low in 1932. A stock market “crash” is caused when everyone wants to ____________ (buy or sell) and not wants to _______ (buy or sell) their ownership of shares in companies. What do you think might cause people to dump their shares on the market? b, The authors provide a number of graphic examples of how the “foundations of America’s social and political structure” were severely and almost fatally shaken by the decade-long Great Depression, which descended starting in 1930. The stock market crash, by reducing the savings of investors and creating a negative psychological mood, was only one small factor in the onset of this Depression. Summarize these three main causes of the Depression cited by the authors. A. Overpopulation and income disparities: B. Overexpansion of credit: C. Economic problems abroad: 6. Hoover and the Depression a. Hoover was a humanitarian, but as a conservative he felt government handouts to the poor would destroy the “national fiber.” When Hoover did substantially alter his principles by spending large sums of government money, it was for public works such as the ___________ Dam and for the ______________ Finance Corporation (RFC). Who received funds from the RFC and how did this illustrate the conservative Hoover’s belief that the benefits of such programs would eventually “trickle down” to the masses? 7. Bonus Army and Foreign Events The final blow to Hoover’s reputation occurred in 19___, when he ordered General Douglass ______________ to evict the remaining elements of the _________ Army, a large group of World War I veterans who came to Washington to demand early payment of war bonuses. Overseas Japan was expanding without restraint by the League of Nations. What do the authors mean when they conclude that “collective security died and World War II was born in 1931 on the windswept plains of Manchuria”?

AP EUROPEAN HISTORY: IMPERIALISM

FOCUS QUESTIONS 1. Describe the growth of imperialism in Europe from the period 1870 to 1814. 2. Which European countries were MAJOR imperial powers from 1870-1914? 3. What was the purpose of the Berlin Conference (Congress) in 1885? 4. When and how did the partitioning of Africa begin? 5. Which countries in Europe, Africa and Asia were able to avoid colonialization by industrializing? 6. What exactly did Rudyard Kipling mean when he said that foreign colonies were “the white man’s burden?” What were the obligations of the “white man.” 7. List some of the reasons the practice of colonialism collapsed. 8. How long (and what years) did Europe’s world hegemony last? 9. Which continents and parts thereof were targets of European imperialism between 1870 and 1914? 10. List the major causes of imperialism. 11. Which countries were part of the British colonies or protectorate by 1914? 12. Why was British colonialism in India considered enlightened? 13. Which European nation had colonies that gained independence without much trouble?

AP EUROPEAN HISTORY: IMPERIALISM

PRACTICE ESSAY QUESTION 1. Analyze the various motives for the “New Imperialism” and their relative importance. First, what does the question want to know? Why did the European world impose its economic, social, and political institutions on virtually the entire non-Western world from the last three decades of the 19th century to the beginning of World War I? Second, What do you know about it? Was it the search for new markets or religious missionary fervor? Was it ethnocentrism or the need for military and naval bases? Was it to “keep up with the Jones”? If it was all of these and more, which had the greatest pull and why? Third, how would you put it into words? Remember that “to analyze” is “to examine in detail” and “to determine relationships.

AP EUROPEAN HISTORY: IMPERIALISM

TOPICS AND TERMS - Overview - causes - search for markets and raw materials - investing surplus capital - missionaries - worldwide missions - military and naval bases - home country - competition to acquire colonies - balance of power - haves and have-nots - ideology - white man’s burden - superiority of the West - social Darwinism - regions - Africa - Egypt - Ottoman Empire - Suez Canal - Anglo-Egyptian Administration - Algeria, Tunisia, most of Morocco, Lybia - Africa south of the Sahara - Belgian, German and French explorers - Berlin Conference - Asia - Sepoy Mutiny - British East India Company - Indian sub-continent - Dutch East Indies - French Indo-China - Russia’s sphere of influence - Persia (Iran) - China - Extraterritoriality - Open Door Policy - Boxer Rebellion - the Dowager Empress - Manchu Dynasty - Sun Yat Sen - three principles - nationalism - democracy - livelihood - Japan - shogun (shogunate) - Commodore Perry - Meiji Dynasty - Russo-Japanese War - the end of colonialism - the British Empire - Indian Independence - Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi - nonviolent resistance - Hindu-Moslem hostilities - Hindu India, Moslem Pakistan - British African colonial independence - British Commonwealth of Nations - Palestine - Jewish-Moslem hostilities - wars of 1948, 1956, 1967, and 1973 - Nationalization of the Suez Canal - the Suez Crisis - the Dutch Empire - Spice Islands - Indonesia - Sukarno - the French Empire - Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos - Ho Chi Minh - the Geneva Accords - partitioning of Viet Nam - North Africa - Tunisia, Morocco, Algeria - French Algerian War - African independence - Belgian Congo (Zaire) - impact of imperialism - collapse of western colonial empires - colonies unprepared to rule themselves - led to military dictatorships

HONORS GEOGRAPHY: METEOROLOGHY-THE BEHAVIOR OF AIR

- in the atmosphere is unending circulation of water - energy of sun evaporates huge quantities of water from oceans - winds transport the moist air to other regions - where condenses and makes clouds - some of which makes rain and snow - if it falls in ocean, the cycle starts again - if it falls on land, it returns to sea in complex journey - this cycle of moving water from liquid, vapor and back - the Hydrologic cycle - from ocean to atmosphere to land and back to ocean - vapor comes from many sources - if from the oceans, rivers or lakes - evaporation - if from living things like animals, trees or people - transpiration - vapor condenses into clouds - wind pushes clouds to land - precipitation falls to the ground as snow, sleet, hail or rain - may take form of glacier - may travel underground in rivers - called groundwater - run off flows to the sea - and the cycle starts over again - think of air molecules as countless billions of bees - swarming around, bumping into each other - they also collide with anything around them - each molecule of air travels about a thousand times its diameter - we’ve already learned that temperature is determined by the average speed of its molecules - kinetic energy - so at room temp. avg speed is @ 1,000 mph - if temp raised, avg speed would increase - if temp lowered, avg speed would decrease - the cooler it gets the slower the speed - until it reached -273'C or -459'F - this is supposedly the coldest temp possible - absolute zero - molelcules have min. amt of energy - so no thermal motion - temperature scales - most scientists use temp. scale called absolute or Kelvin Scale - after British scientist Lord Kelvin who first introduced it - the Kelvin scale has no negative numbers - unlike fahrenheit or Celsius (formerly centigrade) - this makes it convenience for scientific calculations - the Fahrenheit scale was dev. early 1700's by G. Daniel Fahrenheit - he assigned number 32 as temp when water freezes - and 212 at point water boils - b/t freezing and boiling points are 180 equal division - called degrees - this kind of thermometer is called a fahrenheit thermometer - b/c it measures hotness or coldness of things in degrees F - The Celsius scale introduced later in 18th century - 0' is temp at which water freezes - 100' is temp at which water boils - space b/t freeze and boil is divided into 100 equal degrees - so each degree Celsius is 1.8 times higher than Farh - increase in 1'C = increase of 1.5'F - on Kelvin Scale degrees are called Kelvins - abbreviated K - each degree is exactly same as Celsius - and temp of 0'K = -273'C - converting from ‘C to K - add 273' to Celsius temp - ex: K =’C + 273 - there are three steps to converting Celsius to Fahrenheit - take the temperature in Celsius and multiply by 1.8 - add 32 degrees - the result is Celsius converted to Fahrenheit - i.e. 35' celsius X 1.8 = 63 + 32 = 95' Fahrenheit - in most of the world, temp readings are taken in Celsius - in US, temps above the surface are taken in C - while temps at the surface are taken in F - in this class temps will be given in C, and we’ll figure out the F - as long as air temp is above absolute zero, molecules will move about - on avg spring day might collide 10 billion times each second - with each other, houses, trees, flowers, the ground, people - each time it bounces off a thing it gives a tiny push - push divided by the area is called pressure force Pressure = area - at sea level air molecules exert force of @ 14.7 lbs psi - even though we can’t actually feel it, we can detect changes in it - as we ride in a plane, our ears will pop - air collisions b/t outside and inside ear equalize - means higher you go, the less the air pressure - but why are there fewer molecules at high levels? - air molecules, like everything else, held to earth by gravity - squeezing air molecules close together at earth’s surface - this is called air density - we know that air molecules have weight - which exerts a force over the earth - amt of force over an area is called atmospheric pressure/ air pressure - the higher we go, the less air pressure over us - a column of air 1sq in from sea level to top of atmosphere - weight is approx. 14.7 lbs. - so normal pressure at sea level is 14.7 lbs psi - if more molecules are put into the column, pressure goes up - if less molecules are in the column, the pressure lowers - change in air density = change in air pressure - pounds per square inch (PSI) is one way of expressing pressure - but on surface weather maps, they use millibar - but need to know what a Newton (N) is - amt of force required to move an object w/a mass of one kilogram (kg) so that it increases its speed at a rate of 1 m/sec each sec. - a bar is a unit of pressure - force of 100,000N on surface area of 1 sq meter - because bar is particularly large unit we use millibar - 1 bar = 1000 mb - pressure readings on all surface weather maps are expressed in millibars - at sea level standard value for atmospheric pressure is 1013.25 mb - we measure atmospheric pressure using a barometer - so atmospheric pressure is also referred to as barometric pressure - mercury barometer - glass tube is put open side down into dish of mercury - closed end has air pumped out to make a vacuum - in high pressure, air pressure pushes down on dish - causing mercury to rise in tube - in low pressure, air pressure eases up on dish - lowering the mercury in the tube - each millibar is expressed in number of inches of mercury pushed - ex: 850 mb = 25.10" of mercury is pushed up - ex: 1110 mb = 32.78" of mercury - ex: sea level mb? (1013.25 mb) = 29.92" - most common type of home barometer is called an aneroid barometer - contains no fluid - inside is small flexible metal box called aneroid cell - before cell is sealed, air is partially removed - better to measure pressure changes in the air - small changes in pressure causes cell to expand or contract - size of cell is calibrated to represent different pressures - any change in size is shown by an indicating arm - barometer readings tell us a lot about what the weather will be - 870 mb lowest recorded sea level pressure during typhoon Tip 1979 - 899 mb Hurricane Allen Aug. 1980 - 980 mb deep low pressure system - 1013.25 mb average sea level pressure - 1050 mb strong high pressure system - 1064 mb highest recorded sea level pressure in US Montana 12/83 - 1084 mb highest recorded sea level pressure, Siberia 12/68 - 28 to 29 inches and rising meas that rain will continue for 12 to 24 hours followed by clearing and cooler - 29.01 to 29.40 inches and falling means that rain will fall within 2 hours - 29.41 to 29.70 inches and rising means clouds will diminish throughout the day - 29.71 to 30.00 inches and falling means that the skies will become partly cloudy and humidity will rise - 30.01 to 30.50 inches and rising means that it will be mostly sunny and warm - 30.51 to 31.00 inches and falling means that clouds will increase throughout the day with a 10% chance of rain late in the day. - air pressure decreases rapidly with height - new sea level, pressure usually close to 1000 mb - normally decreasing 10 mb for every 100 meters in elevation - at higher levels, pressure decreases much more slowly - at 5.5 km (3.5 mi) pressure is about 500 mb - half of sea level pressure - means that half of all molecules are below us - Mt. Everest at 9 km or 29,000', pressure about 300 mb - at about 50 km or 30 mi. pressure is about 1 mb - meaning 99.9% of all atmostphere is below us - yet atmosphere extends up for many kilometers - helps define “thin air” - decrease of pressure w/height makes sure rising air always cools - think of a balloon and let’s call it a parcel - this parcel can expand or contract freely - but external air/heat c/n mix w/air inside - as parcel moves, d/n break apart but remains single unit - air molecules inside parcel defines air density - avg speed of molecules directly related to air temp - and molecules colliding inside rep. air pressure - at surface parcel has same temp as surrounding air - if carried up, enters region where air pressure is lower - lower pressure outside lets molecules inside expand the parcel - because no new molecules inside parcel, less kinetic energy from collisions because of less density - less kinetic energy = lower temperature - therefore air that rises always expands and cools - if parcel lowers to earth, returns to where pressure outside higher - squeezing parcel back to original size - increasing average speed of molecules inside - more kinetic heat - so air that sinks (subsides) gets warm - subsiding air always warms by compression - as air subsides and warms, can hold more water vapor - means must need more water to reach saturation - so sinking air prevents formation of clouds - as air rises and cools, c/n hold more water - so clouds can form by condensation - so cloudy skies are often due to rising/cooling air - while clear skies may be result of sinking (warm) air - in other words when air rises or descends, air pressure temp and density all change - this applies to air at the surface, but aloft it’s different - we already said air higher up tends to cool or be cold - because of less kinetic energy - if the air were confined to a city block to the top of atmosphere - air density would be the same - think of an ice cube - when warmed it is less dense - when cold it is more dense - the same goes with air that is aloft - let’s look at our column of air over the city again - column 1 and 2 are equal size and same amt of molecules - if column 1 air was cold, the molecules w/b denser - but same amt of molecules as 2 - if column 2 was warmed, the molecules w/b less dense - still the same amt of molecules as 1 - column one would be shorter than 2 - because same amt of molecules are compressed - and warm air expands the column - weather rule: it takes a shorter column or cold, dense air to exert the same amount of pressure as a taller column of warm, less dense air. - now let’s move up the cold column until half way and mark the spot - then from that line cross over to the warm column - notice there are more molecules above that line than below - more pressure above means high pressure above - weather rule: warm air aloft is normally associated with high pressure while cold air aloft usually means low atmospheric pressure - now what would happen if the surface temperature changed - on cold surface, molecules w/b densest at the bottom - mercury barometer would read high pressure - if warm surface, molecules less dense - mercury barometer would read low pressure - heat from the sun can warm the upper atmosphere - and we all know that warm air molecules have more kinetic energy - because they are moving faster - this heating of the atmosphere moves the molecules - we know it as wind - when the sun goes down, these winds also cool - this is called diurnal fluctuation of pressure - diurnal means daily - so upper level heats at its max. @ 10a.m. - when sun is heating atmosphere - and 10p.m. - when upper atmosphere cools - upper level has minimum pressure new 4am and pm - these changes in winds are known as thermal tides - because the fluctuation of winds is like the tides of the ocean - movement of wind aloft can also change surface air pressure - in some places winds aloft will cause air to funnel into an area - causing air to crowd together like cars entering a freeway - this piling up is called convergence - upper level convergence increases air pressure on surface - in other regions winds aloft will cause air to go in many directions - this is called divergence - upper level divergences decreases air pressure on surface SUMMARY - Changes in surface air pressure can be brought on by changes in air density above the surface. They can be caused by: - Changes in air temperature - sunlight warming upper portion of atmosphere, causing winds - convergence and divergence of air brought by wind patterns

AP EUROPEAN HISTORY: THE SHAPING OF MODERN EUROPE

- Even before Napoleon was defeated, many European leaders met in Vienna - to plan terms for peace - The Congress of Vienna lasted until June 1815 - Prince Metternich of Austria wanted the nations to be like before the revolution - Lord Castlereagh of GB wanted GB to increase trade peacefully with others - Czar Alexander I of Russia and Prince Talleyrand of France wanted the same - all from different nations, all wanted the same thing - return of the monarch system - these leaders also believed France must pay compensation - for what Napoleon did to other countries - most of it to be paid in land - Prussia & Russia gained new land as a result - GB got some colonies in other parts of the world - the Congress leaders formed an alliance–The Quadruple Alliance - Austria, Prussia, Russia, GB - to make sure peace terms were obeyed - but soon they had to deal with revolutions in Italy and Spain during 1820's - the peace settlement began to fall apart by 1830 - remember revolution in France against Charles X - tried to take away some of the people’s freedoms -Louis Phillipe became king and the constitution was changed - this revolution led to others all over Europe - only a few were successful - Belgium won its independence - in 1829 Greece won its independence from the Turkish Empire - during early 1830's GB almost had one too - people unhappy cause only small # of wealthy landowners could vote - many middle class and workers were demanding suffrage - to vote for members of Parliament - riots began to break out - to stop them Parliament passed the Reform Bill of 1832 -middle class now had right to vote - 1867, 1884 city and farm workers given suffrage -also remember that France had another revolution in 1848 - others followed shortly thereafter - In Austrian Empire revolution forced Emperor to promise more freedom - and give Hungary independence - other parts of AE began to demand independence - the government put down these revolts - and took away freedom won earlier - but one important freedom remained - all serfs in AE were given their freedom - in 1848 there were revolutions in Germany - as result, most German rulers promised to give people more freedom - but the people also wanted to unite all different parts of Germany into one - German leaders met in the Frankfort Assembly to talk about it - they wanted to elect the Prussian monarch to be ruler of all Germany - but the monarch refused, so the meeting ended in failure - and afterwards, most German rulers did not keep their promises - about giving the people more freedom - at the same time in Italy, there were revolutions going on there - a Republic was set up in Rome - other Italian states declared their independence from the AE - AE was preoccupied with their own revolutions WORLD HISTORY NOTES 43 UNITING GERMANY INTO ONE NATION -during French Revolution, Germany divided into more than 300 independent states - Austria and Prussia the two most important - starting in 1792 both fought several wars against France - but both were defeated by Napoleon - forced to become allies with France - Napoleon then took all German states b/t Austria, France & Prussia - uniting these states and calling them the Confederation of the Rhine - many changes in these states under control of France - the Code Napoleon became the law of the land - German nobles lost much of their power - German serfs were set free - these changes helped German people enjoy better lives - rulers of Prussia and other German states realized they must do the same - improve conditions for the people to avoid revolts - Prussia freed its serfs and gave people more freedom - these improvements gave German people proud of being German - leaders at Congress of Vienna tried to make Germany stronger - divided it into 39 states and united them into the German Confederation - purpose was to make them & Europe strong enough to resist France - leaders also made Prussia stronger - gave it some territory west of the Rhine(was controlled by France) - Prussia became the strongest state in Confederation - Austria was second strongest - but Germany d/n become more united after 1815 - most rulers wished to rule states as they had been before French Revolution - tried to keep German people from gaining more freedom - in Prussia, the promised and long awaited constitution was never created - German students began talking about uniting Germany into one nation - the Confederation passed the Carlsbad Decrees - forbade teachers/students to speak/write ideas about freedom - in the revolutions of 1848, Germany almost became united under an Emperor - but remember the Prussian ruler refused to become the German Emperor - however by 1862 Prussia had a new constitution - and a parliament headed by Otto von Bismarck as chancellor (aka PM) - his greatest wish was a unified Germany - his plan was to go to war with other countries - this “blood and iron” policy gave him his nickname - the Iron Chancellor - he built up a powerful army to defeat Austria - believed Austria m/b defeated to have a united Germany - by 1866 Prussia at war with Austria and other German states - remember the Prussian army was well prepared for war - defeated Austria within 7 weeks - took over N. German states that supported Austria - the German Confederation was now a thing of the past - in 1867 replaced by the North German Confederation - with Prussia as the leader - this united most of German states - but the southern ones still independent - it took another war to unite them with the rest - in 1870 war between Prussia and France - the southern states joined Prussia against France and together they won - victory made them so proud they now wished to be united - 1871 the confederation became the German Empire - with Bismarck as Emperor - it became the strongest nation of Europe - but it was not a democracy - the Emperor controlled the army, navy, foreign affairs - the PM & other leading officials now chosen by Emperor not elected - Parliament still elected, but had little power - but the bottom line was, Germany now united - When these were over, the AE ended the revolutions in N. Italy &N Rome WORLD HISTORY NOTES 44 UNITING ITALY INTO ONE NATION - Remember Italy was once the center of the Roman Empire - after that ended it was divided into many states or parts - that was its status in 1789 when French Revolution began - by 1793 France was at war with most of Europe - and by 1801 Napoleon had conquered most of Italy - so all of it was either owned or controlled by France - under Napoleon the serfs became free - the nobles and church lost some of their powers - the Code Napoleon was became the official laws - when Napoleon was defeated in 1815 the Congress of Vienna divided it again - S. Italy was ruled by the Bourbon family - the dynasty that was ruling France at the time - Central Italy was given back to the Pope at Rome - who again ruled the Papal States - N. Italy was ruled again by Austria - the only Italian state with its own ruler was the Kingdom of Sardinia - some land in Italy and the island itself - b/t 1815-1848 Italian rulers tried to govern their states like before the French Rev. - but many Italians d/n want to lose freedoms gained under Napoleon - soon many would revolt against their leaders - some led by secret group called the Carbonari - others were led by Joseph Mazzini - leader of the group Young Italy - both groups wanted to overthrow foreign rule in Italy - and set up strong, united Italian nation - in 1848 revolutions by these new groups broke out all over Italy - forcing Sardinia, the Pope, and the Bourbons to give the people what they wanted - new constitution, more freedoms, new plans for government - then all N. Italian states declared their independence from Austria - and joined the Kingdom of Sardinia - w/in a few months Austria defeated Sardinia and re-won all territories lost - Austria and the Pope ended the new constitutions - but King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia kept the constitution of 1848 - many Italians thought Sardinia was only state strong enough to lead to unification - under Sardinia’s PM Count Cavour farming & trade improved greatly - making Sardinia a prosperous state - Cavour also strengthened the gov’t by cutting power of Sardinian nobles - and the power of the church - but before unification could happen, Austria had to be ousted from N. Italy - Cavour asked other nations for help against Austria - 1858 Napoleon III agreed to help if Sardinia attacked by Austria - which happened the next year - France kept its promise, defeating Austria that year - now all of N.Italy taken over by Sardinia - except for Venetia - Meanwhile S.Italy wanted the Bourbons out - that revolution was led by Giuseppe Garibaldi - bold, brave, brash - had fought in revolutions of 1830's and 1848 - his army of 1000 conquered Sicily and the mainland of S. Italy - he then presented these lands to the King of Sardinia - in 1861 Victor Emmanuel became ruler of new Kingdom of Italy - ruling all but Venetia and the region around Rome - in 1866 Venetia joined the kingdom - but Italy still did not have Rome - which was controlled by the Pope - protected by army of French soldiers - remember in 1870 France was at war against Prussia - the French soldiers returned to France leaving Rome unguarded - the Italian army able to take it over that year, Rome became the capital of a united Italy WORLD HISTORY NOTES 45 WESTERN EUROPE FROM 1848 TO 1914 - while Italy and Germany were become nations, other countries were quite busy - GREAT BRITAIN - between 1848 and 1914 GB had a peaceful period - but it fought one important war - the Crimean War (1854-1856) because fought in the Crimea - peninsula in N. Black Sea - GB & France fought Russia - Russians wanted to take lands from Turkish Empire - GB & France won, but heavy casualties on both sides - from 1837 to 1901 GB ruled by the very popular Queen Victoria - but the real ruler was Parliament - led by PM who headed the main political party in the House of Commons - which passed all the laws of the country - the House of Lords was part of the Parliament too - but they had few powers except for the power of veto - which they used to prevent higher tax laws to be passed - the 2 greatest PM’s of this time were Benjamin Disraeli and William Gladstone -under them, Parliament passed many important laws - some gave more British people suffrage - some set up a public school system - by early 1900's Parliament passed several social welfare laws - aka “social security laws” - these provided health and unemployment insurance - and old-age pensions for all British workers - the money was to come from higher taxes - but House of Lords were against this and tried to veto it - to preclude this, Commons passed new law that took away Lord’s power of veto - so House of Lords remained in Parliament, but now had no real power - FRANCE - In France, Napoleon III was fighting the Crimean war - then 1870 fought Prussia - Franco-Prussian War - this was one of the wars that helped Germany unite - powerful Prussian army crushed weaker French army - and Napoleon III captured - at this time 2nd French Empire ended - and 3rd Republic set up - in 1875, France drew up a new constitution - government was now bicameral - all citizens voted for lower house - House of Deputies - similar to House of Commons - the legislature elected a President - but he had little power - real leader in gov’t was the Premier - or PM - elected by the people - during 3rd Republic factory workers demanded improved working conditions - gov’t passed new laws - cut down on working hours - provided medical care - set up old-age pensions - GERMANY - remember that Germany had a constitution and elected legislature - but real power held by German Chancellor (PM) and Emperor - after unification in 1871 Chancellor Otto von Bismarck built up the industries - was so successful that by 1914 almost as developed as GB’s - factory workers also demanded changes - better working conditions, social welfare laws - to gain their support Bismarck agreed - had social welfare laws passed in late 1800's enforced - these laws worked so well that GB and France copied them 20 years later - however Emperor William II was against these laws - he forced Bismarck to leave his government position - but the laws were so popular, they continued WORLD HISTORY NOTES 46 THE OLD EMPIRES OF EUROPE - It is said “Old soldiers never die, they just fade away.” - so it was with the old empires of Europe, - Austria-Hungary, Russia, and the Turkish Empire - all grew weak and began to fade away from 1848 to 1914 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY - 1848 Empire ruled by Emperor Franz Joseph of the Hapsburg dynasty - the empire had many nationalities or national groups - each wanted to form own nation - wanted the empire to be divided to form separate nation for each nationality - in 1867 the emperor agreed, but only into two parts - it became known as Austria-Hungary - but all the nationalities were still ruled by just these two nationalities - and the emperor was still ruler of all - pressure to divide further did not stop - ultimately Austria-Hungary would only last until 1918 because of a fatal weakness - many nationalities d/n like being ruled by Austrians and Hungarians - Croats, Poles, Serbs, Czechs, Slovaks, and others - they continued to want their own nations - so they d/n support Austria Hungary RUSSIA - by mid 1800's Russia still ruled as in 1700's - Czar was leader of gov’t and the Russian church - Russian nobles held all important gov’t positions - serfs had no freedom - in 1853 Czar Nicholas I sent army into Turkish territory - GB & France feared a take over of the Dardanelles - passage b/t Black Sea and Mediterranean - GB & France supported Turkish Empire - and declared war on Russia in 1854 (the Crimean War) - as you remember, Russia lost that war - army poorly trained - badly equipped - new Czar Alexander II realized changes necessary in Russia - if it was to become a powerful nation - he knew Russia was “backward” - slow in developing the potential of its people - 1861 passed law freeing the serfs - they no longer had to work for their lords - gov’t gave land to each mir (village) - the mirs would sell land to the freed serfs - however land prices too high for most serfs - some forced to become farm workers on other’s lands - at low pay - others forced to move to the cities to work - Alexander II also improved the court system - allowed the people to have more control over local gov’ts - opened new schools - however when Poland rebelled in 1863, he changed his mind - no longer gave more freedom to Russian people - more trouble soon followed - Alexander II killed in 1881 by a bomb - Czar Alexander III thought father’s policies of more freedom was mistake - so he and his son Nicholas II tried something else - tried to Russify all nationalities and religious groups in Russia - force Poles, Lithuanians, Ukrainians, Finns and Jews - to accept Russian ways - to speak Russian - to join the Russian Orthodox Church - most refused, and continued to want independence - 1904-1905 Russia at war with Japan and was defeated - afterwards a revolution broke out in Russia in 1905 - forced the govt. to promise a new constitution and more democracy - a legislature called the Duma was set up - but new Czar Nicholas II took most of its power away - by 1914 Russians had very little freedom - conditions were ripe for a revolution by its citizens TURKISH EMPIRE - b/t 1800 & early 1900 Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, Albania, Rumania won independence from Turkish Empire - while Europe took over other parts - the Turkish people were ready to revolt - 1908 new leaders called the Young Turks took over the govt. -and made important changes to help Turkey become a stronger nation

AP UNITED STATES HISTORY: THE ROARING 20'S PARTS I AND II

- Intolerance and conflict marked postwar society - as soldiers returned home, were greeted by celebration - parades, flag waving, crowds - but they were more interested in getting things back to normal - finding a job and a place to live - both were scarce - war contracts canceled, factories closed - few orders for consumer goods - industry still geared for war material - as for housing, low level of construction during war - at same time there was soaring inflation - prices skyrocketed - Americans complaining about high cost of living - all this caused fear and restlessness - which contributed to intolerance for ethnic and racial differences - as inflation soared, so did union membership - AFL had 2 million members in 1916, doubled by 1920 - organized or not, Americans demanded higher wages - and were prepared to strike to get it - American coal miners organized largest strike in 1919 - during war had agreement with gov’t - in return for inflation related wages, w/n strike - when this agreement ended at end of war miners insisted upon freedom to bargain freely with mine owners - gov’t disagreed, saying war not officially over - angry miners met in Sept. and called for nationalization of mines - United Mine Workers Union led by John L. Lewis represented the miners - went into negotiations for better hours and 60% increase in base pay - when talks broke down, Lewis called for a strike - US Atty Gen. A. Mitchell Palmer got court order - declaring strike illegal - claimed strike was communist plot to bring down gov’t - despite injunction, 450K union members stayed home - meanwhile Lewis had secret negotiations w/gov’t - managed to get 31% increase in pay - but no change in hours or safety - after 10 days, Lewis ordered the members back to work - only 50K refused - because of his work, Lewis made President of UMW - 2nd most powerful figure in union politics - by end of 1919, some 4 million workers participated in 3,000 strikes - nearly all failed - but the strikes did instill a sense of fear and anger against unions - union membership declined in 1920's - largely b/c corps. began to provide benefits for workers - designed to keep workers happy - welfare capitalism - companies introduced pensions, cafeterias, paid vacations, profit-sharing plans, etc. - but American fear of communism d/n fade w/weakening of unions - were obsessed w/communist takeover of gov’t - called it the Red Scare or Red Menace - after the color of the communist flag - symbolizing Marxist revolution - newspapers filled w/stories of reports of strikes & anti-commie riots - people began to take action against anything un-American - ex: Feb 1919 jury acquitted a man of murder - had killed immigrant who said “to hell w/the US” - a series of bombings began to scare the American people - spring 1919 36 mail bombs sent to leading gov’t officials & capitalists - only a couple of them reached their goal - but the bombings brought terror to the American people - one bomb was found at Palmer’s house - with a pamphlet “Plain Words” attached to it - called on working masses to rise up against gov’t - soon after Palmer began campaign against radicalism - Aug. 1919 created General Intelligence Division - part of Justice Dept. - appt’d J. Edgar Hoover as its chief - later he would be head of FBI - at first only job was to get info on politically dangerous people - usually without clear, hard evidence - but began doing more when Sec. of Labor said membership in radical orgs. were grounds for deportation - Palmer used this to go into the deportation business - w/help of police raided meeting places across the country - ripped bldgs apart and seized tons of anarchist literature - ignored search warrants and habeas corpus - Palmer’s people arrested thousands of “aliens” - many of them loyal Americans - many treated roughly and thrown in crowded jails - some beaten until they confessed - even if they were innocent - only a few hundred were actually deported - Palmer was hailed as a hero and began to think about running for office - his anti-communist raids kept his name in the papers - but the facts of the Palmer Raids d/n support need for suppression of civil liberties - few of those arrested were aliens or revolutionaries - the raids had netted some revolutionary pamphlets - but only 3 guns - but his concern of foreign invasion was shared by many Americans - one third of states passed laws designed to punish radicals - against people who advocated violence or took violent action - other Americans believed Palmer Raids were greater threat to civil liberties - 1920 some formed American Civil Liberties Union - challenged constitutionality of laws that violated Bill of Rights - others questioned the motives of Palmer - and his credibility began to suffer - his downfall came in spring of 1920 - first: new Sec. of Labor was appt’d....Louis F. Post - was outraged at Palmer’s lack of order/justice - he cancelled thousands of warrants - released hundreds of people from custody - Palmer then announced a massive communist demonstration coming - in NYC on May 1, Labor Day - American holiday honoring workers - but also symbol of socialism and communism in USSR - Palmer ordered a great show of force, police, fed. Agents - they flooded the city - May 1 came and went, with nothing happening - confidence in Palmer quickly faded - and his raids came to an end - but hostility toward immigrants persisted - books like The Passing of the Great Race were published - warned that Anglo-Saxon citizens were losing their nation - to “twisted...filthy” southern Europeans and Jews - who were un-American - nativism was on the rise - prejudice against immigrants - 2 laws were passed to control immigration - Emergency Quota Act in 1921 - National Origins Act in 1924 - which put immigration quota of 2% of each group counted in 1890 census - S&E Europeans d/n arrive until 1900 - giving advantage to W&N Europeans - ex: GB, IRE c/send 62,574 people/year - Italy only 3,845 - Japan, China, India and other Asian nations 100/yr - newest immigrants came from Mexico and Puerto Rico - many Mexicans were working in agricultural areas of US SW - into cities like Denver, San Antonio, Los Angeles, Tucson - lived in low rent, inner-city districts - where service and conditions were poor - these barrios were rich in culture and tradition - Puerto Ricans moved to American cities in 1920's mostly to NYC - found work in mfrg, hotels, restaurants and domestic service - but like Mexicans, communities had some well-educated professionals - doctors, lawyers, business owners - served as leaders in their ethnic communities - 1920 hostilities came to a head - 2 Italian immigrants accused of robbing shoe store - and killing two people in the process - Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti - the Sacco-Vanzetti Case - both had lied during interrogation - but neither had a criminal record - and none of the stolen money was in their possession - despite weak case, jury found guilty of murder July 21 - they were sentenced to death - to this day no one can say whether they were guilty or not - some say they were killed for their political views - both were anarchists - gov’t unnecessary evil and s/b abolished - also they were persecuted because they were immigrants - both were executed in 1927 - becoming martyrs against bias of foreign born and radicals - on 50th anniv.of death 1977, Dukakis of MA pardoned them - African Americans after WWI - most Blacks were eager to share in prosperity of the 1920's - especially the veterans - more than 350k had served in Europe - had more freedom, less discrimination - because they helped fight for democratic world - their own country would treat them with honor - but that idea quickly faded - the short economic depression after the war caused problems - intense competition for jobs - which helped increase racial tensions - severe housing shortage in the north didn’t help things - white anger/black frustration started new wave of racial probs. - worst of the race riots happened in Chicago - little black boy floating in Lake Michigan - had crossed imaginary line sep. whites and blacks - he was hit by a rock allegedly by a white man - knocked out, then drowned - fighting broke out on the beach - and spread to city that night - after 5 days of violence 6K national guards called out - in the end, 38 people killed, 537 injured - 1,000 African Americans left homeless - homes destroyed by white mobs - despite this intolerance, Blacks continued to move to the North - by 1930 some 2.5 million had left the south for a better life - in many cities, whites moved out as neighborhoods filled w/blacks - racial segregation became est. in many cities - including Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, NYC - Harlem, a black neighborhood, attracted many of these migrants - used to be primarily white, well to do - by 1930 many of the whites had fled - replaced by 195,000 African Americans - result was overcrowding, housing shortages, rising rents - Harlem became a ghetto - a segregated slum which began to appear in US after WWI - most homes a one room kitchenette - typical owner w/take 7 room apt & rent to whites for $50/mo. - he w/divide it into 7 separate apts - each w/small gas stove and one small sink - then rent to African Americans for $42/mo - bringing in 6X as much rent - sometimes 5-6 people lived together in these apts - so one toilet had to serve 30 or more tenants - to help w/costs, there began a new kind of ghetto entertainment - rent parties - cost of admission from a nickel to a quarter - which went to the host’s rent - there would be sales of illegal liquor and home made food - in Harlem, these rent parties were wild affairs - these ghetto hardships began a new feeling of African American militancy - one central figure was Marcus Garvey, a Jamaican immigrant - founded Universal Negro Improvement Association in Jamaica 1914 - said white majority in US w/never treat blacks fairly - urged blacks to look w/in their own culture for dignity/pride - and abandon efforts at winning white approval - thousands answered Garvey’s call for solidarity - Aug. 1920 thousands paraded behind him in NYC - he was dressed in a purple,green,black uniform w/gold braids on shoulders - w/huge hat with white feathers - Garvey’s efforts led to creation of black businesses - including restaurants, groceries - and a company that made black dolls for children - 1919 Garvey had 4 million paying dues to his organization - set up Black Star Line Steamship Company - to provide transport for “Back to Africa” movement - but this was never realized - 1923 company went bankrupt - Garvey was tried/convicted of defrauding followers - sent to prison and later deported - other leaders called for equality rather than return to Africa - and their movement grew stronger after Garvey’s collapse - NAACP (started 1909) led struggle for civil rights - W.E.B. DuBois became respected speaker in both the black and white communities - but the fight for equal rights and justice had only just begun U S. HISTORY: THE 1920'S, PART II - because of influx of Jews, Catholics and Afro-Ams from South - threatened traditionalist rural white Anglo Saxon Protestants - many would participate in fierce anti-immigrant campaigns - also against evolution and alcohol - the KKK returned shortly after WWI - had been brought back to life 1915 by William J. Simmons - 35 year old ex-Methodist minister and soldier - helped by ad specialists Eliz. Tyler & Edward Young Clark - went around the country selling memberships @ $10 ea. - molded their pitches to fit the clientele - were successful at “selling people their own prejudices” - the Klan had not changed much since the Civil War - still white robes, burning crosses, secret rituals - but was no longer limited to the South - grew in small towns in mid-west, SE, and far West - as well as rapidly urbanizing South and Midwest - also not only attacking African Americans - now after Jews, Catholics, foreigners - anyone who d/n conform to Klan’s moral standards - alcoholics, adulterers, criminals - wanted to restore “100% pure Americanism” - they began a campaign of terrorism, beating, mutilation, murder - by 1925 had membership of 5 million men - including 5 Senators and 4 governors - Aug. 1925, 50k marched down streets to capital in Wash. DC - right past the White House - but as quickly as it rose, the Klan fell out of favor - but not b/c of rejection of prejudice and terror - b/c members began to see hypocrisy and greed in its leaders - had pocketed millions in dues - prominent leader in Indiana had committed murder - sexually assaulted and killed a young woman - by 1930 membership had dwindled to 9,000 men - another popular target of traditionalists was alcohol - which prompted the passing of an amendment - many pointed to physical and emotional dangers of drinking - openly linked alcohol w/corrupt politicians, immigrants - both of which gathered in working class saloons - traditionalists turned to the Anti-Saloon League - led by Wayne B. Wheeler - had been started 1895 by evangelical Protestant churches - Wheeler recruited many to his cause - by 1914 had 23 states ban alcohol - known as going dry - some states to this day are still dry - UT, NC - by 1916 was primary issue in nationwide state elections - with WWI, prohibition took on new urgency and patriotic tone - people began to link beer with the enemy - most breweries had German names to them - distilleries were closed - to save food and fuel supplies - banned sale, mfr., transport of “intoxicating liquor” - Dec. 1917 Congress passed the 18th Amendment - but did not forbid the drinking of it - by Jan. 1919 necessary 36 states had ratified it - and went into effect one year later - beginning the Prohibition Era - to enforce it, Congress passed the Volstead Act - which contained a long list of exemptions to prohibition - including allowances for religious and medical uses - the Treasury Dept. named to enforce the law - but financial support was minimal - when Volstead Act became law, most Ams became voluntary lawbreakers - neighborhood saloons and night clubs shut down - but secret clubs sprang up everywhere - speakeasies - knock on door and give the password - but do it “speaking easy” (i.e. whisper) - was a place to drink and socialize - police knew where they were but tended to ignore them - often in return for payoffs or free drinks - or both - agents willing to turn their eyes away often became wealthy - the more notorious driving limos and wearing diamond rings - Americans were determined to drink, and agents powerless to stop them - some parts of the country completely ignored the 18th amendment - restaurants in SF and Boston old wine w/o problems - smuggling, producing liquor became big business - people built stills and concocted bathtub gin - actually made in gallon jugs - lawbreaking reached every level of society - Pres. Warren Harding served liquor to poker friends - had been confiscated by feds - was delivered in Wells Fargo armored truck - most Americans thought speakeasies and bootleg liquor an adventure - but organized crime took it seriously - saw profits to be made from rebellion against Volstead Act - gangsters took control of production, distribution - built extensive money making orgs. - violence was often the answer to competition - trucks carrying liquor often hijacked - competitors gunned down in broad daylight - in Chicago, murder became common - was stomping ground of perhaps most famous gangster - Al “Scarface” Capone - flaunted wealth in front of frustrated police - at least those not on his payroll - wore lime green suits, silk ties - drove custom-made armor plated Cadillac - used press to cultivate image of wealth and power - IRS calculated took in $105 million in 1927 - from alcohol, gambling, prostitution - gangsters only stopped fighting each other when battling the feds - b/t 1920-1928 135 gangsters, 55 feds lost their lives - federal effort to catch Capone most involved, dangerous jobs - Elliot Ness led team against Capone - team called “The Untouchables” - for unwillingness to take bribes - Ness won when Capone convicted for tax evasion - sentenced to prison (Alcatraz) - so besides increasing crime, Prohibition failed to change Ams drinking habit - 1929 Pres. Hoover appt’d Atty. Gen. Geo. W. Wickersham - to head commission to investigate its effectiveness - the report was inconclusive, contradictory - said prohibition a failure b/c public indifferent to it - but said it should continue - a NY newspaper parodied the report - “Prohibition is an awful flap, We like it We can’t stop what it’s meant to stop We like it It’s left a trail of graft and slime It’s filled our land with vice and crime It don’t prohibit worth a dime Nevertheless, we’re for it” - pressure to repeal the amendment grew - 1932 Hoover reluctantly abandoned support for it - by Dec. 1933, 21st amendment repealing it was ratified - prohibition lasted more than 10 years - alcohol consumption did decline - so did number of deaths due to alcohol - but benefits failed to convince gov’t had right to violate personal liberties - many who opposed alcohol also opposed evolution - fundamentalism gained strength in the 1920's - the belief in a literal interpretation of the Bible - most came from Baptist, Methodist or Presbyterian backgrounds - 1925 TN passed law making teaching evolution a crime - “may not teach any theory that denies the story of the Divine Creation of man as taught in the Bible, and to teach instead that man has descended from a lower order of animals.” - no one paid much attention to the law...w/n c/n be enforced - but had caught the attention of the ACLU - set out to find a test case to challenge it - John Scopes, biology teacher in Dayton, TN, brought to trial 1925 - had deliberately taught evolution in school - defense led by Clarence Darrow - famous trial lawyer and agnostic - prosecution led by William Jennings Bryan - fundamentalist and 3X runner for President - the trial played out like a circus - stands selling lemonade, hot dogs outside crowded court - little cotton apes appeared in windows - was first trial to be carried on radio - loudspeakers blared to crowd outside court - media sent news out to rest of the country - Scopes guilt was never much of an issue, after all, he DID break the law - question was really did state have right to forbid teaching of evolution - Darrow brought scientists as expert witness that evolution was true - judge said evidence inadmissable - scientists were not around when lower life evolved to man - Darrow’s case seemed to be lost - but in brilliant flash of inspiration, took another path - called Bryan to the stand himself - confronted w/Darrows sarcastic questions - about God and religion - Bryan claimed unshakable faith in literal truth of Bible - Darrow ridiculed Bryan’s testimony -“ fool ideas that no intelligent Christian on earth believes” - Bryan held his own - “better to believe in the rock of ages than the ages of rocks” - Scopes was convicted and fined $100 - though TN Sup. Ct. set it aside on a technicality - but Scopes Monkey Trial exposed intolerance in America in 1920's - and like Red Scare, prohibition and KKK, fundamentalism declined - racists c/n compete with realities of rapidly urbanizing society

HONORS GEOGRAPHY: INTRO TO METEOROLOGY PART I

QUESTIONS TO ASK - how are weather and climate affected by the relative positions of the earth and sun? - how do wind and ocean currents redistribute the sun’s heat - what factors influence the world’s climate regions? - why is climatic change a cause for concern KEY TERMS weather solstice continental climate climate equinox rotation precipitation revolution front MAIN IDEA: Climate is influence by many factors, such as the relationship between the earth and sun, latitude, ocean currents and elevation. Samuel Langhorn Clemens (Mark Twain) once said, “Everybody talks about the weather, but nobody does anything about.” Another quote of his was “The coldest winter I’ve ever experienced was a summer in San Francisco.” - No matter where you come from, continent, country, state, city, town, village, there is an expression to “tell” the weather. - ex.; “Red sky in the morning, sailors take warning. Red sky at night, sailor’s delight.” - India, “when the frog croaks in the meadow, there will be rain in 3 hours.” - In England and America they say, “Rain before seven, sun by eleven.” - There is nothing in your life that isn’t affected by weather; - where you’re going to live, - what you’re going to wear, - planting and harvesting your crops. - Sometimes even your very survival depends on what you know about weather and climate. WEATHER AND CLIMATE - the definition of weather is the condition of the bottom layer of the earth’s atmosphere in one place over a short period of time. - the atmosphere is actually several layers - bands of gases, water vapor and dust in the sky - descriptions usually include temperature, moisture or precipitation, and wind - a day might be warm, dry and calm - or cold, snowy, and windy - weather is always changing - sometimes drastically in one day - from very hot to very cold in the same place - weather in one region can influence weather in another region far away - ex: weather in Nevada can affect the weather in central and southern CA - ex: weather in Korea or Japan can affect the W. coast of the U.S. and Canada - climate, on the other hand defines weather patterns experienced over a long period of time - the climate depends on several factors - elevation - latitude - nearby landforms - nearby bodies of water - climate CAN change, but this takes place over longer periods of time - ex: global warming - so weather and climate are related, but not synonymous - distinction is the difference between specifics and generalities - old farmer’s expression: - “climate is what you expect, weather is what you get” THE SUN AND THE EARTH - all weather on earth (and life for that matter), gets its source from one place - the Sun - some 93 million miles away - the star is intensely hot and gives off energy and light - essential for almost all life on earth THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT - only a small amount of the sun’s radiation makes it to the surface of the earth - some is reflected back into space by the atmosphere and earth’s surface - enough reaches us to warm the land and water - the atmosphere also helps keep heat from escaping back into space - so in essence, the atmosphere is like several glass walls in a greenhouse - traps the sun’s warmth so plants and animals can grow - this is called the greenhouse effect - without it earth would be too cold for life - only half of the earth gets heat and light at the same time - day, night, seasons, and different climates - all determined by the relative position of the sun and earth RELATION AND REVOLUTION - as Earth spins through space is spins on its axis like a top - this is called rotation - the axis is an invisible line through the center of the earth - from the south pole to the north pole - it rotates once about every 24 hours - actually every 24 hours, 56 minutes, and 4.2 seconds - the side facing the sun is day - the side away from the sun is night - the earth spins from west to east - so the sun rises in the east and sets in the west - earth also revolves around the sun in a nearly circular path - this is called an orbit - a revolution is one complete orbit around the sun - one complete orbit takes 365.25 days - the length of a year - because of the .25 days, every four years is a leap year - adding another day to February - brings the calendar back to 365 days - as the earth revolves around the sun its position changes - it is not straight up and down - our planet wobbles - tilted 23.5 degrees on its axis - so the Tropic of Cancer is 23.5 degrees North - and the Tropic of Capricorn is 23.5 degrees South - this marks the part of the earth that gets the most light and heat - this tilt also explains why sunlight strikes different parts of the earth more directly - at different times of the year - you can see this in your textbook on page 64 - you can see the North Pole tilted toward the sun - when the sun falls more directly over the Northern Hemisphere - making the days longer and warmer in the summer - and shorter and colder in the winter - this causes summer in the Northern Hemisphere - and winter in the Southern Hemisphere - as the earth moves to the opposite side of the sun the tilt changes - now the Southern Hemisphere is tilted toward the sun - these changes in season are marked by two distinct calendar days - the summer and winter solstices - usually around June 21 and December 21 - these dates are when the sun is directly overhead - the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn - there are other “markers” for seasonal change - usually on March 21 and September 23 - these are called the Spring and Fall Equinoxes - on these days the sun is directly over the Equator - making the length of days and nights equal all over the earth LATITUDE AND CLIMATE - the angle of the sun’s rays affect weather and climate in other ways - because the earth is “nearly” round the sun’s rays fall at or near the Equator - again, look at your book on page 64 - the rays grow less and less direct as they fall closer to the Poles - so most places near the Equator stay warm - and areas far from the Equator are cold - geographers use latitude to divide the world into zones - latitude is the distance from the Equator - tropical zones are low latitude zones - again 23.5 degrees north and south of the Equator - most places in the tropics are hot year round - the earth’s 2 temperate zones are in th middle latitudes - 23.5 degrees N to 66.5 degrees N - 23.5 degrees S to 66..5 degrees S - climate is generally cooler than the tropics - daily temperature change can vary widely - the polar zones are in the high latitudes - 66.5 degrees N and 66.5 degree S to the poles - the sun never hits these latitudes directly - meaning the suns rays are spread out more - the climate is always cool - or bitterly cold - you can see a diagram of these latitudes on page 66 DISTRIBUTING THE SUN’S HEAT - the sun’s heat doesn’t stay where it falls - if it did, the tropics would get hotter each year - and the polar regions colder - instead, heat is distributed by a process called convection - the transfer of heat from one place to another - convection occurs because warm gases/liquids are less dense than cool gases/liquids - warm gases/liquids tend to rise - cool gases/liquids tend to sink - pushing out lighter gases/liquids on the surface - lighter gases being pushed out are called winds - lighter liquids being pushed out are called currents - warm air and water tend to flow from the Equator to the Poles - cold air and water tend to flow from the Poles to the Equator - this is the simple explanation - but there’s much more - there are smaller, more complex patters that affect weather and climate - WIND - the weight of the atmosphere on top of us is called atmospheric pressure - warm air rising from the surface to the atmosphere leaves a “hole” below/ - the air that is pushed out is called wind - it is the movement of winds worldwide that redistribute heat over the earth’s surface - winds patterns begin when light warm air rises from the Equator and flows northward and southward - toward the poles - at the same time cold air from the poles sinks to the surface and moves toward the Equator - if the world were standing still the winds would blow in a straight line - but remember the earth is rotating - the spin deflects, or bends the winds - this is called the Coriolis effect - in the north, the winds curve to the right - and in the south winds curve to the left - the diagram on page 66 shows the wind currents of our planet WIND PATTERNS - in each latitude zone, temperature and air pressure combine to create a pattern - called prevailing (or dominant) winds - at the Equator, rising warm air causes calm weather or light breezes - this area is called the Doldrums - two other regions of light and unpredictable winds are about 30 degrees N and S latitudes - cool air sinks to the surface - sailing ships had trouble getting enough winds to travel - these latitudes are called the Horse Latitudes - during the Spanish exploration era, their ships would be stuck - in order to lighten the ship, the threw their horses overboard - making the boat lighter and easier for the wind to move - between the Horse Latitudes and Equator are where you can find the Trade Winds - blowing steadily toward the Equator from the NE and SE - merchants would sail using these winds - in order to trade with other countries on the other side of the ocean - hence the name Trade Winds CURRENTS - the ocean water also help to redistribute heat on the surface of the earth - the ocean convection patterns are very similar to those of the atmosphere - heat rises, cold sinks - warmer water at the surface (because it’s nearer to the sun) - much colder water at the depths (where there is little to no sun) - again, this convection moves warm water towards the poles - and cold water towards the Equator - wind and the Coriolis effect influence the currents of the ocean - usually in circular patterns - the map on page 67 shows the major ocean currents, both warm and cold PRECIPITATION - humidity is the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere - precipitation on the other hand is all forms of water that fall from the sky to the surface - the timing and volume (how much) of precipitation are important aspects of climate - warm less dense air absorbs moisture in the air in the form of water vapor - the warmer the air, the more water vapor the atmosphere can hold - when it cools, it can’t hold on to the water vapor - then water vapor condenses and becomes liquid - tiny droplets of water - these gather together to form clouds - precipitation happens when the clouds have more water than they can hold - and falls to the ground - snow, rain, sleet, or hail depending on the temperature and wind conditions - the water cycle is an excellent graph to show how precipitation works - you can see this on page 68 of your textbook - meteorologists divide precipitation into three types - convectional, orographic, and frontal - page 69 of your book shows these different types of precipitation CONVECTIONAL PRECIPITATION - this occurs when hot, humid air rises from the surface and cools - thereby, because the air is cooler, it cannot hold a lot of water vapor - causing rain - this is common near the Equator and the tropics - where there is LOTS of heat and humid air - convectional rainfall produces rain that feed lush, tropical forests OROGRAPHIC PRECIPITATION - sometimes warm moist air is forced up a landform - like a mountain or a cliff - this effect is called orographic precipitation - it is common along seacoasts and mountains - warm moist ocean winds blow toward the coastal mountains - the warm winds cool as they rise up the windward side of the mountains - clouds form and rain or snow falls - but the time the moisture reaches the top of the mountain - there is very little moisture that can fall on the other side - the leeward side of the mountain - the air warms up again as it goes down the other side - this warm dry air is called a rain shadow - this is why there are dense forests on the western side of the Sierras - and it’s dryer on the eastern side - ex: the Mojave Desert FRONTAL PRECIPITATION - this is the most common type of precipitation - occurs when two fronts, or masses of air of different temperatures, meet - warm air is forced upward by the cold, sinking air - the warm air cools, and water vapor condenses and rain begins OTHER INFLUENCES OF CLIMATE - so temperature and precipitation are major factors affecting weather and climate - other influence may be nearby bodies of water, elevation, and location - in relation to nearby NEARBY BODIES OF WATER - land and water absorb and store heat differently - land temperatures can change drastically within a few hours - especially during the seasons - ex: Siberia temps can vary by as much as 140 degrees - from summer to winter - water temperatures change much more slowly -ex: avg. temps on ocean surfaces vary less than 10 degrees - throughout the year - because of this difference, large bodies of water affect surrounding climates - oceans or large lakes - winds that blow over water tend to become the temperature of the ward - these cooler winds blow from the ocean to the land - if the land is warm or hot, the temperature will cool - we call these sea breezes - these areas have milder climates than land at the same latitude - simply because they’re near water - coastal areas have specific climate types -ex: middle latitude areas on continental west coasts - mild, humid marine climates - prevailing westerlies supply warm, moist ocean air - marine climates are found on Pacific Coast of North America - and in Southern Chile - the British Isles and western European countries have marine climates - these countries are farther north - but winds that blow onshore from the east are warmer - because of the North Atlantic Current - bringing warm water from the Caribbean and Gulf Stream - see page 67 for examples - central areas of continents in the Northern Hemisphere have continental climates - away from the influence of the oceans - cold, snowy winters, and warm or hot summers - humidity and precipitation vary - temps often reach extremes of hot and cold - regions with this climate are the transition zones between mild and polar climates - ex: Ctl Europe, Northern Eurasia, parts of China and much of N. America ELEVATION - Mt. Kilimanjaro in Tanzania, Africa is 19,341 feet above sea level - located near the Equator - but the mountain has snow at its peak year round - so despite being in the tropics, the elevation affects its climate - this effect happens worldwide - important rule: air temperatures decrease 3.5 degrees for every 1,000 feet - this is why climbers should know the temp at the foot of a mountain and the top - it can be hot at the bottom - but it can be a blizzard nearer the top NEARBY LANDFORMS - variations in climate happen naturally - as a matter of fact, no climate is ever completely uniform - coastal mountains are landforms that affect climate - inland mountains, large deserts, lakes, forests, other natural features - all of these influence climate, too - dense cities with tall buildings can affect the climate - pavement and concrete absorb vast amounts of heat and energy - so temps in cities tend to be warmer than the surrounding area - another example can be flat areas, like a football or baseball field - the dark grass absorbs much more heat than the surrounding area - so it can be 80 degrees in the areas near the classrooms - but it can be 110 degrees on the field - football and baseball players know this phenomenon - all of these variations are called microclimates WORLD CLIMATE REGIONS - geologists and climatologists have developed many different classification systems - to define the world’s major climate regions - this can be a difficult thing to do - changing climate conditions - lack of accurate weather data in many parts of the - most efforts to classify climate regions rely on two factors - temperature and precipitation - climate classifications began in the early 1900s by Wladimir Koppen, a German scientist - these systems identify five broad climate regions - tropical, dry, moderate, continental and polar - highland climates from mountain systems are similar to the polar regions - most of these climate groups have specific subdivisions - look on page 72 of your text - it will show you the climate classification system we’ll be using in the course CHANGING CLIMATES - many changes in climate result from changes in nature - but recently more may now be caused by human actions - increasing amounts of carbon dioxide “can” affect the atmosphere - causing “global warming” - this could potentially melt the polar icecaps - causing a rise in sea levels - flooding low lying areas like Marina del Rey - and introducing vast amounts of fresh water into the salty seas - other effects of global warming could be an increase in precipitation in some areas - and less precipitation in others - fertile farmland could turn into empty deserts - now, to be fair, some scientists say that global warming is a natural effect - happening in cycles - ex: some say the Vikings came to N. America when it was warmer - but in mid-1500s North Atlantic climates cooled - lower temps made farming difficult - resulting in lower population levels - as the Greenland ice sheet grew, settlements became fewer and fewer - until they were finally abandoned