AP United States History: The Civil War-Part I

Sectionalism Readings: Chapter 18, pp. 390 to 408. Be sure to also read the text in the brown boxes and captions to all pictures, graphs and maps. All texts should be finished by next Tuesday.

AP European History: The Renaissance

Reading: Chapter 12 Recovery and Rebirth: The Age of the Renaissance. Read the entire chapter and don't forget to read all the texts in the brown boxes, as well as the captioins for pictures and maps. This will help you get a better understanding of the period. The chapter should be completed by next Tuesday.

AP European History: The Italian and Northern Renaissance

PRACTICE ESSAY QUESTIONS: AP European History: The Italian and Northern Renaissance (1450-1550) The following questions are from older AP Euro tests for the essay portion. The five questions are explained in the corresponding paragraphs below the questions. Try and answer both the initial questions, and the questions found in the paragraphs. both will give you an idea of what to expect when you take the AP test in May 2013. 1. To what extent and in what ways did the Italian Renaissance result from Italy's geographic advantage in he world trade of the 15th century? 2. "Although the term "renaissance" is misleading, the modern world began with Renaissance secularism and individualism." Assess the validity of this statement 3. Explain why Machiavelli's The Prince is both one of the mostt misinterpreted books of modern times and the first modern treatise in political science 4. Contrast and compare the Italian and Northern Renaissance 5. Analyze how the Northern Renaissance gave rise to two diverse trends: religious mysticism and revival and science and technology. A1. "Geography is destiny" So it is said. And the strategic location of Italy, a peninsula jutting into the Mediterranean, gave it advantages in the world trade of the 15th century. "How and how much" are the questions to answer here. The clues are inherent in the geography. With what parts of the world did the Europeans carry on trade at this time? Why did Italy have an advantage? What were the rewards of that advantage? How were those rewards instrumental in fostering the greatest brief period of creativity in history? A2. "To judge the value" or "determine the truth:" of this statement, you must ascertain why the term "renaissance" may be misleading and what the "modern world" is. Then you must determine whether or not the modern world began with secularism and individualism. Can we claim that any era, especiallly one so complex, began at a specific time or with a few ideas? Did these concepts affect other developments - the Reformation, for instance? This abstract question requires careful thought and organization to answer. A3. "Explain" offers no choice. You must "make clear," or "detail," and "offer meanings, causes, reasons for." The essence of the book is in the phrase "The welfare of the state justifies everything....." Is this equivalent to arguing that the end justifies the means? What was Machiavelli's purpose in writing the book? How did his methods of observation and his arguments make it the "first modern treatise in political science?" Would medieval philosophers have considered the same issues? If so, what would their arguments be based upon? A4. "Show differences"; "examine similarities." In showing the differences, consider how each began, which influenced which, how their emphases differed, how they interpreted common concepts differently, how they expressed their differences. How did the art and literature of each differ? How did the personalities vary - who was the "ideal Renaissance man: in Italy, in Northern Europe? What were the accomplishments of each? In examining similarities, consider common concepts such as "individualism" and "secularism"; look for similarities in their religious commitments, in their artistic and literary techniques and themes, in their approaches to defining human life. A5. In this case, analyze means primarily to "determine the relationships" between the Northern Renaissance and two glaringly different approaches to the human condition: religion and science. How did the study of ancient texts - specifically Hebrew and Greek versions of the Bible and the writings of the early Church Fathers - revitalize religious devotion? How did the concept of "individualism" encourage the very personal religious experience of mysticism? How did "individualism" and "skepicism" give rise to modern science? Why did the revival of religion and the growth of mysticism occur primarily in Northern Europe? Was Italian religious devotion centered on the arts? Did the papacy have less sway in the North? Why did Northern Euruope give birth to modern science? Was the desire to understand and control nature the Northern counterpart to Italian virtu or richness of the human spirit? Was it a tradition that began with the mathematician Regiomontanus and evolved into the Copernican formula for a heliocentric universe?

AP European History: The Italian and Northern Renaissance

TOPICS AND TERMS - The Italian Renaissance - The Italian City-States - the major city-states - Republic of Genoa - Duchy of Milan - Rome, the Papal States - Naples, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies - Venice, Venetian Republic - the Medici Family - Giovanni - Cosimo - Lorenzo the Magnificent - Individualism, A New Conception of Humankind - man is the measure of all things - virtu - The Arts as an Expression of Individualism - Filippo Brunelleschi - Leon Battista Alberti - Lorenzo Ghiberti - Giotto - Massaccio - Botticelli - Raphael - The Greatest of the Great - Leonardo da Vinci - Michelangelo Buonarotti - Humanism - Petrarch - Boccaccio - Bruni - Baldassare Castiglione - Niccolo Machiavelli - The Prince - The Northern Renaissance - Germany - science and technology - Gutenberg - Regiomontanus - Behaim and Schoner - Copernicus - mysticism - Meister Eckhart - Thomas a Kempis - Gerard Groote - Erasmus - In Praise of Folly - England - Elizabeth I - Christopher Marlowe - Edmund Spenser - Francis Bacon - William Shakespeare - Henry VIII - Sir Thomas More - Utopia - France - Hundred Years' War - Louis XI - Charles VIII - Louis XII - Francis I - Henry II - Rabelais - Montaigne - Spain - Moors - Reconquista - Miguel de Cervantes - Don Quixote - Lope de Vega - Bartolome Estaban Murillo - Domenikos (El Greco) - Diego Velazquez - Francisco Suarez

AP European History: Late Middle Ages Reading

Western Civilization: Chapter 10: A New World of Cities and Kingdoms (the whole thing, please) Chapter 11: The Later Middle Ages: Crisis and Disintigration in the 14th Century (the entire chapter, please) Be ready to talk about this next Monday.

AP European History: The Late Middle Ages Focus Questions

1. Why did kings in the late Middle Ages increasingly have to consult representative assemblies to grant new taxes? 2. What caused the instability of the 14th century? 3. What was the great schism and how was it resolved? 4. Describe the impact and development of gunpowder on Europe’s nobility. 5. What is conciliarism 6. Which, if not all, characterize middle ages scholasticism? a. The belief in transmigration of souls b. The necessity of accommodation with Muslim theology c. The use of dialectical logic 7. What were some of the important consequences of the 100 Years War? 8. What views did the unam sanctam express? 9. Where did the Hanseatic League have a monopoly? 10. Why were Christians not allowed to loan money with interest?

AP European History: The Late Middle Ages

- we are exploring the later Middle Ages 1000 to 1500 - even after end of Roman Empire, trade continued - during feudal period, manors traded w/manors - European trade carried on w/Byzantine Empire - spices, silk from Asia were traded for olive oil, wine from Europe - Europeans needed spices from Asia - kept food from spoiling and tasted better - even after Muslims controlled Med. Sea some Europeans con’t to trade w/Near East - by 1000's, Europe’s trade on increase again - after conquering island in Med. held by Muslims - the Crusades helped trade increase even more - men/women taken back and forth - from Holy Land to Europe - Venice, Genoa, Padua handled most of it - ships carried goods from as far as China - from Italy, goods traded to other nations - but one needs products to trade with - at first Europe only had raw materials to sell - products from nature like hides, lumber, fur - later Europeans learned to make woolen/silk cloth, metalware, leather goods - these were traded to Byzantine and Muslim empires - by late 1300's, Italian traders sending ships to W. Med. around to England and Scandinavia - taking goods imported from Asia and brought back copper, wood, furs, grain, fish - trade increased all over Europe - much took place in fairs - large trading meetings lasting weeks - several held ea. year in Champagne, NE France - merchants (traders) came from all over Europe - some fairs still held today - money is needed before large trade can be carried on - at first only a small amt. of money used - as trade increased, so did use of money - Kings, nobles had coins made that were used - but trading difficult - some coins worth more than others - Venetian coin c/b worth more than 4French - problem partly solved - money changer booths - decided how much money worth - then exchanged coins at certain rates - money kept in strong boxes - Merchants would give money to changers - to keep in these boxes for safekeeping - paid money changers for services - soon money changers had large amts. - forerunners of banks and bankers - European trade increased in spite of bad travel condition - roads too rough for wagons - instead, goods carried by mules or horses - also Europe had bad bridges - so merchants carried goods by water, not land - either way, merchants had to pay a toll every time they crossed a noble’sland - toll = tax - and was still danger of being robbed by bandits - sea travel not much safer b/c ships were small, had to sail close to land - where sea was safer but also dangerous - ships c/b wrecked by strong winds - privateers (pirates) - in spite of all this, trade began to increase WORLD HISTORY NOTES 22 THE GROWTH OF EUROPEAN TOWNS - after Roman Empire collapsed, some cities survived - in Italy, many old Roman cities remained although much smaller - outside of Italy, some Roman cities became church centers - where church leaders lived and worked - these centers attracted many settlers/visitors - many castles were built in early mid-ages - castle = burg in German - many located in N. & E. Europe which d/n have Roman towns - people who lived there called burghers - some burgs grew larger and eventually became towns - w/trade increasing @1000 - church centers & burgs that were good trading places grew into towns - some along rivers or near harbors - some where two roads crossed or rivers met - however most towns still ruled by feudal lord - people still had to pay taxes and work for the lord - this work slowed growth of business - to gain more freedom, rich townspeople offered their lord money in exchange for a charter - document making the burghers free people - d/n have to serve the lord and could govern themselves - some charters given in return for taxes - b/t 1000 & 1300, most towns had a charter - New towns governed by merchant guilds - group of merchants in the same kind of business - merchants were first to form these groups @ 1000 - later barbers, tailors, lawyers & skilled workers - leaders of guilds often members of town council - made town’s laws and acted as court - most laws made to help town’s guilds - guilds main purpose was protect workers in that biz - only guild members c/buy/sell goods or do business - they set up rules for their own members - all paid their workers the same wages - all worked same number of hours - all charged the same price for same goods - all tried to keep quality at high levels - there were 3 classes in guilds - apprentices, beginners or boys learning skill - got food, clothing, shelter but no wages - at 19 y/o, became a journeyman or day worker - if skilled enough, became a master - but only after proving it - had to crated a “masterpiece” (a really fine piece of work) - once a master, he opened a shop - in this way, guilds trained very good artisans - most European towns had small populations - 1200, Paris largest town in W. Europe pop. @ 100,000 - most were small, protected by walls - streets were narrow @10 feet wide and houses made of wood - largest buildings were church and guild hall - as population grew, houses built closer together and often 7 to 8 floors high - towns became crowded w/all these wooden homes - fire a constant danger which could destroy large parts of the town - from these towns came a new class - city middle class made up of merchants of the town - many rich through trade and other business - would be an important development in Euro.Gov’t WORLD HISTORY NOTES 23 FRANCE & ENGLAND IN THE LATER MIDDLE AGES - after Charlemagne died, empire taken over by nobles - in time, this western part of the empire b/c France - 987 French nobles chose Hugh Capet to be king - but he only controlled land around Paris b/c most of France controlled by nobles - 1180 Philip Augustus became king - was powerful enough to conquer large part of Fr. held by England - including Normandy & Anjou - 1226 to 1270, France ruled by Louis IX - he improved French court system - sent officials to provinces to check up on locals - both he and Philip helped build Fr. into one nation - England also becoming a nation - 40 to 410, England a Roman province - after Rome, Angles, Saxons, Jutes took over - Angles and Saxons merged into Anglo-Saxons - most famous was Alfred the Great - ruled England 871 to 899 - set up schools, encouraged learning - formed a code of laws and improved local gov’t - built a strong navy and army - after Alfred died, the Danes began to conquer England - but by 1042 the Anglo-Saxons regained power - 1066 William, Duke of Normandy and Norman Army invaded England - defeated Anglo-Saxons at battle of Hastings - so William the Conqueror b/c first Norman king - under Normans, England changed greatly - most important nobles, church leaders were Norman - the king gained more power over feudal nobles - William divided lands owned by A/S and gave them to Norman followers - in return Normans swore fealty only to William making William even more powerful - 1154 to 1189 Henry II now king - set up courts to replace those of nobles/Church - serious crimes now tried in royal courts by royal judges - Henry also dev. the jury system - group of people reporting to the judge names of people who might be guilty of crimes - judge decided innocence or guilt - later this job also went to the jury - who also decided punishment - when judges decided, wrote down their decisions - over centuries these decisions became known as English common law - beginning of equal justice for all - another imp. development happened under King John, son of Henry II - John was unpopular ruler who refused to give the nobles more power - 1215 nobles revolted and forced John to sign the Magna Carta - Great Charter - gave nobles certain rights as well as rights to the common people - king c/n tax w/o approval of the council - king c/n imprison anyone b/c he d/n like them - citizens c/refuse to obey king if rights denied - so Magna Carta was imp. document of freedom but the King was still powerful WORLD HISTORY NOTES 24 EDUCATION AND LEARNING IN THE LATER MIDDLE AGES - people who study certain subjects very carefully are called scholars - had imp. role in later mid ages - 1100 studied Christianity in new way - tried to show faith & science agreed w/ea other - this was called scholasticism - Peter Abelard of Univ of Paris was one of most famous - helped make scholasticism imp. method of learning - during late 1100, Eur. scholars began to study Greek writings - esp. Plato and Aristotle - brought by Greek, Arabic and Hebrew books - also Arabic books about science and math - these were translated in Latin - at first scholars felt Aristotle d/n agree with Christianity - Thomas Aquinas, Roman Catholic philosopher wrote book showing how they did agree - as a result, more accepted Aristotle’s ideas - after Aquinas’ death in 1275, scholasticism less imp. - scholars began arguing about less imp. matters - later, though, scholasticism became imp. again - still used by Catholic leaders today - during 1100's, universities and colleges started in Euro. - schools of higher learning w/outstanding teachers - began as guilds of groups of students/teachers - some univ. were controlled by students like the University of Bologna in Italy - others followed Univ. of Paris - teachers set up rules, students took orders from teachers - this system is followed in most universities today. - most universities received charters from king or pope - gave many rights/freedoms - including power to run own affairs - students/teachers not forced to pay tax - students/teachers not forced to serve in army - even had own law courts - these freedoms very imp. all over the world - these were called academic freedoms - Univ. d/n have libraries or labs, only places were teachers/students lived - and few large lecture halls - if students/teachers d/n like town Univ. is in, moved to town they DID like - many universities developed in this way - main power of Univ.s was right to give teaching degrees - after 4 yrs of study, got Bachelor’s degree and could become a beginning teacher - could study 2-3 more yrs and get Master’s degree now well trained to be teachers - highest degree was the doctorate or doctor’s degree - given to advanced student in law, medicine, religion - took many years to get this - had to spend all day answering questions from teachers, other scholars - if passed, then now able to become a scholar - universities helped make learning more important - trained students to be teachers, doctors, lawyers, gov’t leaders, even church leaders - today’s colleges carry on the work of the later mid ages WORLD HISTORY NOTES 25 SCIENCE, BUILDING AND WRITING IN LATER MIDDLE AGES - @1100 Eur. scholars began study Arabic and Greek ideas in science and math - they used Arabic numerals and the zero from Arabs - improved Arabic & Greek ideas in algebra, geometry, trigonometry - also studied Arabic astronomy, medicine, chemistry - Roger Bacon best known Eur. scientist of mid-ages - invented the scientific method - find truth by experimenting and observing - Bacon only accepted fact proving using sci. meth. - but sci.meth. d/n become popular till way after Middle ages over - several new inventions after 1100 - magnetic compass from China used to find direction at sea - invention of the rudder or steering lever - easier to steer ships - better sails speeded up sailing - other inventions - spinning wheel, mechanical clock, the button - better ways of making iron. and gunpowder from China - imp. in warfare - most imp. change was new kind of power to do jobs - Eur farmers learned to use water power - turned machinery to grind grain, saw wood - the windmill used to pump water from ground - by later mid ages most Eur. use more machine power - and less human power than ever before in history - many famous churches built in later mid ages - in early years, built in Romanesque style based on Roman buildings - thick walls, round arches, narrow windows - late 1100's, new Gothic style - higher, thinner walls, larger windows w/stained glass and many statues - all the people helped build these churches - and ea. town tried to build a bigger, better one - some took hundred of years to build - many book in mid ages written in Latin the official language of the church - works in religion, history, poetry also much church music - other writers began to use language of their own country - earliest ones were long poems called epics - Anglo-Saxon Beowulf - Spanish El Cid - French Song of Roland - no one knows who really wrote these epics - perhaps may different people - 2 writers of the time were Dante (It.) & Chaucer (Eng.) - Dante born in Florence - wrote in Italian - the Divine Comedy - describes a trip to heaven & hell as he pictured them to be - is one of the greatest of all poems - Chaucer born in London - wrote in English - the Canterbury Tales - describes a group of people who made a trip to Canterbury, England @1300 - tells a lot about life then -like Dante, helped shape his country’s language WORLD HISTORY NOTES 26 THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH IN THE LATER MIDDLE AGES - the Church favored the growing trade in Europe - trade provided what people needed in their lives - church helped by building/maintaining roads - or Order of Bridge Builders helped build bridges - church also encouraged the guilds - and guilds worked w/in the church - each had its own patron saint - aids and protects guild and its members - guild members put on plays - and attended church as a group - they gave money/labor to help build churches in their towns - the church also tried to keep guilds from cheating people - they required merchants/artisans to charge fair price - enough to pay expenses and small profit - it was a sin to charge more - growth of trade helped money changers/lenders to become bankers - but church d/n allow the charging of interest - a fee for lending money - therefore many early lenders were Jews - however, as need or money increased, church let up - bankers could charge low interest - soon Italian Catholic merchants took over banking - large banks appeared all over Europe - even the church used them to take care of its money - Education - almost all teachers in Eur. universities were priests - or at least members of Catholic groups - church was interested in education - to train people to be church leaders - or scholars in church law -leading scholars (Abelard, Aquinas) and scientists (Roger Bacon) were very religious people - after all, main reason to study science in mid-ages was to aid people in u/s God - As Eur. life changed, so did the Roman Catholic Church - tried to make itself more powerful in affairs of Eur. - was Pope Innocent III’s new plan - led church 1190 to 1216 - same time rulers in Eng./Fr. getting more powerful - Innocent wanted a league of Christian nations - w/Pope at its head - could live together peacefully and fight only the Muslims - he never formed this league - however he did get powerful enough to make Eng., Port., Hung., Pol., and other nations his vassals - he was also strong enough to chose the next Holy Roman Emperor - German Emperor - also under him, better leaders trained and the church grew stronger - Innocent encouraged monks to leave monastaries - to work among the people - those who did were called friars - freres = brothers - friars were both monks & priests -not allowed to own property - not allowed to earn wages - depended on others for food, clothes, shelter for whom they served - two most famous groups of friars were the Dominicans and Franciscans - Dominicans founded by St. Dominic - known as famous teachers and taught in many Eur. universities - Franciscans founded by St. Francis - carried on missionary work while some became teachers - both groups encouraged others to follow their example - and help spread religion all over Europe.

AP United States History: The Constitution Readings

Readings: Part Two Building a New Nation 1776 - 1860 Chapter 9 The Confederation and the Constitution pp 164-189 Chapter 10 Launching the New Ship of State pp 190-210 You have all of this week plus a few days next week to finish the reading. From here on out it is imperative that all readings be done. The course will pick up now, and it will be extremely difficult to catch up if you fall behind. The focus questions will be due the day of the test.

AP United States History: The Constitution Focus Questions

1. What was the first amendment regarding religion a response to? 2. Which group would be more likely to ratify the Articles of Confederation? 3. Who opposed ratification of the Constitution and why? 4. What is the “due process” clause and why is it important? 5. Why did Hamilton propose a tariff soon after the beginning of the U.S.? 6. What were the new responsibilities of women in the post-war years? 7. What is the difference between Shay’s Rebellion and the Whiskey Rebellion? 8. What precedent did the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 set for the new territories? 9. What is the purpose of the Judiciary Act of 1789? 10. What was the purpose of the Alien & Sedition Act? 11. Cite some of the causes of John Adams’ defeat in the election of 1800? 12. What was the central compromise of the Constitutional Convention? 13. Define and explain the “elastic clause.” 14. According to James Madison, what was the most dangerous threat to the Constitution? 15. According to the Constitution, where do revenue bills originate? 16. Explain the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. 17. Why was American neutrality an issue in the 1790's? 18. Cite the precedents put forward by Chief Justice John Marshall. 19. What provisions were made in dealing with America’s native population? 20. What were the fundamental differences between the Federalists and the Republicans?

AP United States History: Framing the Constitution

U S. HISTORY: THE NATION DEVISES A NEW GOVERNMENT - by end of 1777 ten of former colonies wrote new state constitutions - by 1780 all 13 had new governments w/new constitutions - new governments differed from state to state - all reflected Locke’s idea of social contract - gov’t based on consent of people - and of Montesquieu - separation and balance of powers - state gov’t divided into legislative, executive and judicial branches - the legislative branch also divided into two parts - two separate houses to check each other’s actions - the new constitutions also showed American distrust of too much govt - like their old rulers - a constitutional govt was created by the Americans - June 1776 Cont. Congress had apptd committee to draft nat. const. - The Articles of Confederation - mostly the work of John Dickinson of PA - but greatly weakened by Congress - it was sent to legislature for ratification 1777 - but wasn#’t ratified until 1781 - conflicts among states over western lands - Articles created a loose alliance of 13 states - while preserving the powers and independence of all of them - each state had one vote in Confederation - no decision made w/o approval of at least nine - any amendments had to be approved by all - these restrictions reflected fear of strong central authority - which might conflict with rights and powers of the states - what it did produce was a national govt w/severe restrictions - the Confederation govt had power to conduct foreign affairs, make treaties - also given authority over the Indians - could settle disputes b/t states - could conduct a postal service - the Confederation could not make money - meaning each state may have to mint its own - they c/n raise taxes except by requesting it from the states - which is why the Continental Army had so very few supplies - the Articles said nothing about an executive or judicial branch - Congress was lawmaker and executive - wrangling in Congress made it impossible to carry out laws - quick action in time of emergency was impossible - nevertheless, the new govt succeeded in taking some positive actions - most significant, it provided for expansion - the opening of the west sparked intense debate over who has the right to exploit them - speculators or individual settlers - national govt or individual states - Land Ordinance of 1785 - tried to provide for orderly sale of settlement in Northwest Territory - the Ohio River to Great Lakes and the Mississippi - it created a system of townships, areas of land six miles square - to administer the Ordinance, Northwest Ordinance of 1787 created - made for creation of three to five new states in the territory - in which slavery was forbidden - in early stages, Congress would appt territorial governor - when pop. reached 60k could write Constit. and apply for statehood - this insured that the new nation w/n create colonies if its own - it soon became evident the Confederation wasn’t working - states took advantage of right to regulate own trade - they taxed goods crossing their borders from other states - more than half issued their own money - some states were less responsible than others - by 1785 rivalries b/t states were erupting into violence - summer 1786 postwar depression, increased taxes in W. Mass. - angry farmers rose up in rebellion - led by former captain of Continental Army, Daniel Shays - Shays’ Rebellion - state governor sent militia to crush it - however the rebellion brought a new fear - what if a rebellion like that succeeded? - how could we stop it? - many Americans believed that a stronger national govt was needed - if only to bring order - Sept. 1786 small political group of leaders from 5 states met at Annapolis - to discuss problems of interstate commerce - but the conversation soon turned to national problems - delegates recommended a new convention be held - to revise the Articles of Confederation - Spring 1787, in Philly, 55 men, representing 12 states met - Rhode Island refused - all were well educated, wealthy, members of what Jefferson called: - “that natural aristocracy of talent” - they elected Washington as chairman and set the ground rules for the mtg - each state had one vote, regardless of number of delegates - a simple majority decided all decisions - all meetings were to be held in secrecy - this protected the delegates from criticism - it allowed them to go beyond amending the Articles - instead, they would write a new Constitution - several points of major importance were accepted w/o debate - all approved of a written constitution - all assumed the continued existence of the states - they also wanted a republican form of govt - with some separation of powers - the Virginia delegation was the first to arrive at the convention - James Madison had already drawn up a plan for a govt - became known as the Virginia Plan - called for 3 branches of govt - executive, judicial, legislative - it would be bicameral - a two house legislature - number of seats depended on population of the state - delegates from smaller states d/n like this - they had fewer people, therefore less representation - William Patterson of NJ called for executive committee - New Jersey Plan - which would be chosen by congress - instead of an executive branch - there followed weeks of debate on this idea - broken by Roger Sherman and his compromise - Lower House (Representatives) - states members based on population - Upper House (Senate) - each state w/have two senators, regardless of pop. - this solution was called The Great Compromise - another dispute rose over issue of slavery - were they counted as people or property? - North said since slave were considered form of wealth - should not be counted - remember South is crawling with slaves - South said unless they were counted, they w/have less represent - again, a compromise was reached - for representation and taxation, five slaves = three people - The Three-Fifths Compromise - by Sept. 10, all issues were settled - the Convention voted to approve the constitution - it was sent to a Committee on Style - chaired by PA gov. Morris - it was he who added “We, the people....” - leaving no doubt this new govt was of the people - not all delegates were satisfied - some refused to sign it - but most doubters followed this wise advice: “I confess that there are several parts of the Constitution which I do not at present approve but I Am not sure that I shall never approve them...Thus I consent, sir, to this Constitution because I expect no better, and because I am not sure that it is not the best ...I cannot help expressing a wish that every member of the Convention who may still have objection to it, would with me, on this occasion, doubt a little of his own infallibility, and to make manifest our unanimity, put his name to this instrument.” Benjamin Franklin - the constitution provided for special meetings in each state - a Constitutional Convention - as soon as 9 of them approved the Constitution, gov’t goes into effect - but only in those states - but before that happened, those who approved it or against it had the opportunity to give their opinions - those for the constitution were called Federalists - implying they were for a strong federal central gov’t - they turned to political writers to get people to agree - to argue the virtues and advantages - John Jay, Alexander Hamilton, James Madison - published series of 85 newspaper essays in NY - later to be put together in book form - The Federalist - those against the constitution were called Anti-Federalists - believed strong state gov’t was the goal of the revolution - they’re more democratic, responsive to the people - unlike a distant national gov’t - but what really disturbed them was from Enlightenment - there was nothing about rights of man - a Bill of Rights - asked why convention d/n address individual liberties - using essays and speeches - In VA the debate got hot and heavy - Federalists and Anti-s were divided equally the debate raged 23 days -but by June 21, 1788 the required nine states ratified it - DE, PA, NJ, GA, CT, MA, MD, SC, NH - NY and VA were the most populous states - and they had not yet voted - June 25, Federalists won in VA by vote of 89 to 79 - next day NY followed w/another narrow margin 30 to 27 - RI was the last holdout - but finally came around in 1790 - AFTER new gov’t had been installed U S. HISTORY: THE FRAMERS CREATED A FEDERAL SYSTEM - the constitution is very carefully worded - nowhere are the words national or federal used - instead they used the expression the United States - Madison and Hamilton came to the convention thinking national govt -with states used as administrative districts - others envisioned a more effective federal govt - with the states giving them power to do only certain things - one thing was clear, the Art. Of Confed. was unacceptable - it was also clear states had no intention of disappearing - the framers found a solution - strong central gov’t would co-exist w/ state gov’ts - ea. w/separate areas of responsibility - w/some powers overlapping - this compromise is called federalism - it satisfied both the states and the central gov’t - states laws w/b guaranteed and all w/b equal under law - the framers made sure they w/n make the same mistake w/the Articles - Nat’l gov’t could tax, borrow, coin money, regulate interstate/foreign - also maintain army, navy - this authority is expressed in the Const’s supremacy clause Art. VI, Clause II - Const., its Nat’l laws/treaties are “the supreme law of the land” - in age of slow communication and travel, Nat’l gov’t remote to most Ameri. - therefore natural for states (local govt) 2B responsible for its citizens - Constitution says states have power to provide for several things - health, welfare, safety, and morals of their citizens - state govts supervised education, marriage, divorce, - and inheritance, elections, and aspects of criminal law - now, the national govt has supremacy clause - but states now have the concept of reserved powers - any right or power not specifically assigned or denied in the Constitution was reserved to the states or the people - the 10th Amendment confirms this doctrine of reserved powers - govts at any level have certain basic needs - with money at the head of the list - the Constitution gives states and Nat’l govt certain concurrent powers - powers that they both can exercise - power to tax - to borrow money - to establish courts - to charter banks - to build roads - to enforce laws - What are the powers of the national government? - What are the powers reserved for the states? - What concurrent powers do both share? - disagreements @ powers of Nat’l govt and states have been frequent - at times dangerous, and at one time it was disastrous - differences like minimum wage, max. speed limits - today the nat’l govt plays a larger role in daily life than ever before - federalism still holds - the compromises that made the Constitution continues into 3rd century - it was Shays’ Rebellion that showed Americans the need for strong govt - 1794 another rebellion in western PA - people were protesting a rather large tax on whiskey - The Whiskey Rebellion - a militia of 13,000 was raised against the rebellion - even Washington joined them for a bit - the contrast b/t Shays’ and this rebellion was obvious - w/strong central govt, any rebellion could be dealt w/fast - but the new govt effectiveness extended beyond military/political strengths - several provisions in Const. contributed to a revitalized economy - with the plans for this drawn up by Alexander Hamilton - took advantage of Congress’ power to tax, pay debts, & borrow - with the money, the US was able to repay all its war debt - a good thing to pay back debts when they’re due - meant the US had good credit around the world - the Const. prevented states from interfering w/interstate trade - the Nat’l govt was prohibited from taxing articles exported from states - the Nat’l govt created a standard system of currency - and a uniform system of weights and measures - ensured that “The privileges & immunities of citizens” w/b respected - this would create a large common market for goods to be traded - this free market and sound economy brought prosperity to many - the Const. protected private property - Americans who grew rich from farming could reinvest in the country - ex: Samuel Slater arrived in US 1789 (year Const. was effective) - he was only 21 years old - he didn’t have much money but he did have an idea - he wrote to his friend Moses Brown, who w/be his future partner - “I was informed that you wanted a manager of cotton spinning, etc...I can give the greatest satisfaction, in making machinery, making good yarn, as any that is made in England.” - in Pawtucket, RI, Slater saw that American cotton was primitive - and its machines virtually useless - England was far more advanced in cotton industry - and they guarded their secret to perfect cotton - banned exportation of their machines - and emigration of textile workers - Slater worked for one of these companies - he had to sneak out of England in disguise - Brown challenged Slater to make his machine - w/help of skilled blacksmith, Oziel Wilkenson - he would be his future father-in-law - Slater tried to recreate the water-powered textile machines - w/o a single note or diagram - he did it totally from memory - “If I don’t make as good yarn as they do in England, I will have nothing for my services, but will throw the whole of what I attempted over the bridge.” - w/time, tinkering and his incredible memory, he did it - by Dec. 1790 his automatic machinery was producing quality cotton - but at a great personal cost - in winter, he had to break the water wheel free of ice - he would get soaked with frozen water - would affect him the rest of his life - twenty years later, >160 cotton mills were busy in RI, MA & CT - Slater owned seven of them - was on his way to being one of the first American millionaires - he touched many other lives - cost of cotton was greatly reduced - several of his employees founded their own mills - Slater later built schools for his employees - and enlarged his investment in America - started a Bank and textile machine factory - helped build turnpikes (toll roads) U S. HISTORY: FRAMERS BALANCED THE ROLES OF GOVERNMENT - framers of the constitution adopted easily the idea of separation of powers - a separate branch of gov’t for each function - Congress makes the laws - the President (the Chief Executive) carries out those laws - the judiciary, or court system, interprets or applies the laws - to insure a bal.of powers among branches we have checks & balances - each branch is subject to checks or restraints from the others - the branches must interact w/each other -in order for them to do their work - Article 1 assigns Congress powers to make the laws - it does so through a series of interactions - the first is internal - Congress is bicameral - both houses are slightly different - 2 Senators/state for 6 year terms - House of Reps depends on population - and they serve two terms - a bill must be approved by both b4 it goes to Pres. - the second is external - the bill is sent to Pres. for signing - but he also has the power to reject or veto - Congress may override with 2/3 of both houses - President may call special session of Congress - he has special powers over Congress - uses public opinion and private conferences - helps to sway Congress his way -the third is also external - Supreme Court checks lawmaking powers of Congr. - can rule on constitutionality of the law - and make it invalid - Article II gives Pres. power to admin. (carry out) the laws - most of the framers had deep fear of monarchy - took care to provide restraints against Exec. Power abuses - Congress may remove the President - if found guilty of misusing power - this action is another internal interaction - the House votes for a bill of impeachment - a formal list of charges - the Senate conducts the trial of the Pres - only two presidents have been put on trial - Andrew Johnson in 1868 - found not guilty by one vote - Wm. Jefferson Clinton in 1998 - also found not guilty - Congress has other less drastic powers over the Pres - Senate has approval power over treaties - also approval power over government posts - and federal judgeships - with 2/3 vote in both houses, they can override - over the years the Exec. Br. has dev. independent powers - and Congress has one strong constitutional restraint - Presidential actions cost money - Congress controls taxation and spending - the power of the purse - Article III gives judiciary power to intrepret laws - once appointed, they’re there for life - “during good behavior” - framers wanted to keep judges free of presidential control - but there are still several checks on judicial power - Congress has power to impeach judges - and has done so several times - it can also control the number of judges on the bench - today it’s fixed at nine - but has been as few as 5, as many as 10 - by making const. amendments the can negate SC opinions - they’ve done this 4 times - 11th, 14th, 16th & 26th amendments - all have overturned Sup Ct decisions - after appointing a judge, the Pres. c/n control his/her actions - Sandra Day O’Connor was appt’d by Reagan - was supposed to be conservative - but has voted liberally on many occasions - however the Pres’s power of appt is important - means s/he can fill vacancies w/people who share ideals - therefore changing the character of the Sup Ct - another restraint on courts is Pres’s power to pardon - those convicted of federal crimes - another is Pres’s control over enforcement of Sup Ct decisions - ex:Chief Justice John Marshall favored Indian rights inGA - Pres. Andrew Johnson wanted them out of GA - “John Marshall has made his opinion; now let him enforce it.” Johnson - ex. of interplay b/t all three branches was Truman Admin. 1948 - labor unions were getting too powerful - Congress pass law enabling gov’t to delay/prevent strikes - Truman disagreed and vetoed it - Congress passed Taft-Hartley Act over his veto - 1952 during Korean War, needed steel -but industry refused to grant pay hikes or bargain - workers went on strike - Under Taft-Hartley Truman could force them back - but that’s not what he did - he ignored Taft Hartley - put steel co.s under gov’t control - Steel co.s went to Sup Ct - they declared his action unconstitutional - an abuse of his powers - this separation of powers and checks and balances were important - created protection against governmental tyranny - but framers had another goal - wanted to make gov’t safe and level field of competition - for opposing interests and viewpoints - they realized that humans differ and are competitive - Madison said society includes rich/poor/debtors/creditors - people in commerce, agriculture - citizens of different religious beliefs - these interests are often in conflict. How to cope? - “There are again two methods of removing the causes of faction; the one, by destroying the liberty which is essential to its existence; the other, by giving to every citizen the same opinions, the same passions, and the same interests. It could never be more truly said than of the first remedy that it was worse than the disease... the second expedient is as impracticable as the first would be unwise. As long as the reason of man continues fallible, and he is at liberty to exercise it, different opinions will be formed.” James Madison - with no choice, tyranny of oppression would rule - so what happens to the minority? - the new gov’t allowed differing ideas and interests to exist - they are able to compete under rule of law - checks & balances and sep. of powers prevents a single group/interest from dominating - consider the following - a would-be dictator & his/her political party would have to win Pres. - and majorities in both houses - little by little, could gain control of Sup. Ct - but every two years people could elect new reps. and senators - every four years they could elect a new president - after eight years they MUST do so - this highlights wisdom in have system of sep.of powers,checks & bal. - now, even if Fed govt dominated by single interest group - there is still a balancing force - governors and legislatures of the states - Federalism is essential ingredient in checks and balances - federalism: system of gov’t where fed gov’t and state gov’t share power - the constitution offers protection of minority from majority - tyranny of the majority would make for a simple, speedy efficient govt - but framers preferred safeguarding liberty over efficiency - the fact that we’re here is testament to that! U. S. HISTORY: THE CONSTITUTION PERMITS CHANGE - like Franklin said, the framers d/n expect Const. to be perfect - most believed that the omission of a bill of rights was a huge mistake - other shortcomings would soon appear - framers d/n see formation of political parties - would make orig. system of Pres. election unworkable - bitter political opponents d/n make good Pres & VP - the system w/b revised w/in next 15 years - some of the compromises in the Const. failed to hold - states’ rights and slavery were to settled later by a war - but despite this, the Const. met needs of nation from 18th c. to 20th c. - the Constitution is oldest still functioning written constitution in world - the secret to its longevity w/n genius of Philly delegates - the secret was they let the future make its own decisions - part of its flexibility can be seen in its style of language - it’s a short, terse doc w/little room for explanations, definitions, lists - framers expressed its intentions in broad statements - which would require interpretation rather than blind obedience - ex: Article I: Congress is given power to regulate commerce - framers d/n define “commerce” or “regulate” - it gives Congress ability to adjust business - as it moves from oxcart to jet planes and laser printers - Sup. Ct h/b called a “constitutional convention in continuous session - b/c makes frequent decisions about meaning of Const. - ex: Plessy v Ferguson: Sup. Ct. ruled “separate but equal” legal - 1954 a diff. Sup. Ct thought differently and reversed decision - Brown v Board of Education of Topeka - found “sep but equal” unconst.in regard to public schools - beyond flexibility of language, Const. also responds to change - final clause of Article I, Section 8, known as elastic clause - “To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in ay department or officer thereof.” - those two words made all the difference - instead of having to write amendments over and over again - could use “necessary and proper” - Congress has used this time and again - ex: 20th c laws governing working conditions have been judged necessary and proper to the regulation of interstate trade - few can challenge the wisdom of the elastic clause - but many have debated it - what is a “necessary and proper” law? - the Constitution is silent on that - Chf Justice John Marshall ruled court h/power to apply elastic clause - did so b/t years of 1801 and 1835 - he also used clause to give Congress wide scope for action - McCulloch v Maryland (1819): “Let the end be legitimate, let it be within the scope of the Constitution, and all means which are appropriate, which are plainly adapted to that end, which are not prohibited, but consist (agree) with the letter and spirit of the Constitution are constitutional.” John Marshall - Marshall’s decision d/n end the debate - his reference to “letter and spirit” highlights point of contention - some Americans wanted to emphasize letter of the Constitution - must follow the literal interpretation - after all, it was the original intent of the framers - others chose to emphasize the spirit of the Constitution - a looser, broader understanding - goes beyond actual wording of the document - but all agreed, elastic clause was very effective - in over two centuries, there have been only 27 amendments - and two of the cancel each other out - the clearest example of Const. ability to change is its amendments - framers provided 2 ways of providing change & 2 ways of ratification - What are the methods of proposing and ratifying the Constitution? - the Const. was written to be completed by experience - over the years traditions/procedures rose essential to modern govt - but are not mentioned in the Const. - procedures/traditions are part of an unwritten Constitution - ex: Const has no provision for political parties - but parties have become essential to modern govt - unwritten Const. is not a monument to the framers - about things they forgot or never imagined - it is a reminder that it is a living document - a system of growing and changing according to need - the genius of the framers is not that they predicted the future - but that they saw change as inevitable - the Constitution protects civil liberties - basic rights guaranteed by laws or constitution - cannot be tampered w/by govt or particular leader - Americans usually associate civil liberties w/bill of rights - but body of Const. has powerful language against tyranny - it is because of this that these protections are taken for granted - Article I, Section 9 Congress is forbidden to pass bills of attainder - law designed to punish a specific person or group w/o a trial - attempts to pass this kind of law have been rare - WWII Cong. passed law w/holding pay of suspected spies - thought of as “un-American” - later the Sup. Ct. would void the law - the same article forbids Congress to pass ex post facto laws - punishment for an action that took place b4 law was passed - commit a crime not on the books on Monday - pass a law on Tuesday making what you did illegal - or it might increase the penalty for the crime - you would be arrested - ex post facto means “after the deed” - Section 9 also protects ancient right of habeas corpus - c/n arrest/imprison someone w/o charging them with a crime - if you are arrested and not charged, your lawyer files - writ of habeas corpus - govt required to “produce the body” of person held - also must produce proof of wrongdoing - prisoner released if evidence is insufficient - powerful tool against govt efforts to suppress dissent/criticism - Pres. can suspend it in most extreme cases (rebellion, invasion) - and only w/Congressional approval - during Civil War, Lincoln became 1st president to suspend it - at first in ltd areas for military reasons - and w/o Congress’ approval - was not in session at the time - later, w/Congress’ approval, suspended it nationwide - scholars are still debating the legality of this - Article VI is brief but powerful assertion to religious freedom - summer 1787 Jonas Phillips, self-described “being one of the people called Jews of the city of Philadelphia, a people scattered & disbursed among all nations.” - wrote to the delegates of the Constitutional Convention - reminded them that anyone in PA public office must swear to God and acknowledge Old & New Testaments were divinely inspired. - said that that should not be the way with the national govt - delegates did him one better - banned use of any religious test for public office - the Const. d/n provide a list of guaranteed freedoms - you already know that some delegates objected to this lack - they insisted that a bill of rights be included...a guarantee of - political, economic, religious and civil rights - “...a Bill of Rights is what the people are entitled to... and what no just government should refuse.” Thomas Jefferson - even the Bill of Rights was flexible - w/in 2 years the amendments would begin - Amendment 1: Freedom of (and from) religion, speech, the press, to peaceably assemble, to petition govt for grievances - Amendment 2: A well trained militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. - Amendment 3: No quartering of soldiers w/o permission of owner, nor in time of war unless it is prescribed by law - Amendment 4: Right against unreasonable search and seizure - Amendment 5: No one may be tried in a federal court unless a grand jury has accused that person.. This does not cover members of the services in times of war or public danger. No person may be tried twice for the same offence (double jeopardy), unless the crime is also a crime under state law. No one may be forced to testify against him or herself (self-incrimination). The govt may not deprive a citizen of life, liberty and property without due process of law. However the gov’t may do so if it is for the benefit of all People. This is called eminent domain. - Amendment 6: The right to speedy trial by a jury in the state or district the crime was committed. The law must already be on the books. The accused must be charged and must be present when witnesses come to speak. The accused has a right to have a lawyer - Amendment 7: In disputes of more than 20$, either side of the dispute can insist on a jury trial or not. Powers of the judge in influencing the jury shall be limited. - Amendment 8: Bails, fines and punishments must not be excessive or cruel and unusual. - Amendment 9: The rights written in this constitution does not mean that these are the only rights of the people, and does not make other rights less important. - Amendment 10: The “Reserved Power” amendment. All rights and powers not assigned to the federal govt shall be reserved for the states and the people. - many of these rights have their roots in the Magna Carta 1215 - the first amendment, for example - the Bill of Rights pays a lot of attention to the phrase “due process of law” - including right to know what your accused of - including right to not be subjected to cruel and unusual punishment - the framers knew personal rights m/b balanced w/rights of others, society - it d/n protect right to persuade others to overthrow the gov’t by force - in certain times, some rights may be taken away - habeas corpus during Civil War - this is still being debated - determining limits on civil rights is usually job of Judicial Br. - in protecting these rights, court has expanded the scope of them - Thurgood Marshall once said “We the people..” meant majority of Amer. - “On a matter so basic as the right to vote, for example, Negro slaves were excluded, although they were counted for representational purposes-at three fifths each. Women did not gain the right to vote for over a hundred and thirty years.” - among the others not represented - Indians and white men without property - Patriots were against king who would reduce them to slavery - yet they bought and owned slaves - “How is it that we hear the loudest yelps for liberty from the drivers of negroes.” British writer Samuel Johnson - slavery was thought of as “that peculiar or strange institution” - self interest was not only reason South hesitated to end slavery - Jefferson agreed slavery was morally wrong - “I tremble for my country when I reflect that God is just” - yet he himself was a slave owner - including Sally Hemmings - he wondered what role these thousands of slaves would play in the US if they were free? - he believed former slaves could never be citizens - w/these views, he showed himself as a man of his times - the Constitution d/n challenge slavery, it tiptoed around it. - the words “slave” and “slavery” never appear - it used “other persons” and “such persons” - many of the framers probably hoped it would disappear - the states would be responsible for getting rid of it - but 3/5ths Compromise & extension of slave trade made it last longer - the Constitution granted Congress to “regulate commerce w/the Indians” - this single reference showed govt meant to treat them as countries - over the next 80 years, govt & tribes produced 389 treaties - Congress promised lands w/never be taken w/o consent - except in a “lawful war” - every treaty was broken by our gov’t - govt never declared war on the Indians - but all the laws in the world c/n stop land hungry settlers - govt took lands and gave to non-Indians - moved Indians to unwanted lands in the West - As for women! - there was not one woman delegate at the convention - Abigail Adams had asked the men to “Remember the ladies!” - give them more rights - but the men never even thought about it - tradition dictated that women were the dependents of husbands - not independent adults! - men of the time believed that men protected and represented women - therefore they had no need for a separate voice in govt - neither state nor federal constitutions could reform the old laws - women continued to be represented by their men - and single women were not represented at all! - in the years since then things have changed - thanks to Sup. Ct, federal laws and executive actions - they have worked together to reduce oppression and unfairness - for Indians, Women, African-Americans, - all this comes from our Constitution - but as we all know, we have a long way to go US. HISTORY: THE FEDERALISTS YIELD TO THE REPUBLICANS - throughout the Const. convention all knew Washington w/b 1st president - elected unanimously and joined Congress in NYC - which served as seat of gov’t until it moved to Philly in 1790 - the constitution was a blueprint of gov’t…now leaders must build that govt - Washington was well aware of the importance of his presidency - “I walk on untrodden ground. There is scarcely any part of my conduct which may not hereafter be drawn into precedent.” Geo. Washington - so now we have the legislative and executive branch but no judicial branch - Congress passed the Judiciary Act of 1789 - creating a federal court system - federal district courts - circuit court of appeals - Supreme Court - w/chief justice and 5 associate justices - Washington, w/Senate approval, named John Jay as 1st chief justice - Congress organized the Exec. Br. - created depts of state, treasury, war - created an Attorney General and postmaster general - he named Thos. Jefferson as 1st Sec. of State - Alexander Hamilton as Sec. of Treasury - Henry Knox as Sec. of War - Benjamin Franklin as postmaster General - these appointments were the first presidential cabinet - group of advisors chosen by the president - choosing Jefferson and Hamilton was good/bad idea - good b/c both most brilliant and talented men in country - bad b/c both had different ideas about role of gov’t should be - Jefferson opposed strong central gov’t - “I own (admit) I am not a friend to a very energetic government.” - state govts w/b more responsive to the people - this put him at odds with Hamilton who believed in strong central govt - was suspicious of giving too much power to the people - “The voice of the people has been said to be the voice of God but it is not true in fact. The people are turbulent and changing; they seldom judge or determine right.” Alexander Hamilton - these two had other disagreements as well - during French Revolution of 1789 - France had gotten rid of their king - wanted to pattern their new govt after the Americans’ - France was also at war with GB - Jefferson approved of the revolution - “No country should be long without one.” - he was a friend of France and distrusted GB - Hamilton saw only chaos in France - and wanted closer ties with GB - trade would benefit merchants - also bring govt income from import duties (taxes) - he wanted to build US’ economy by trade, commerce, mfrg. - urban centers would benefit every citizen - Jefferson d/n trust industry and commerce - he wanted a nation of independent farmers - transforming wilderness into cultivated farmland - and he hated the city -“I think our government will remain virtuous for many centuries as long as they (the people) are chiefly agri-cultural. When they get piled upon one another in large cities, as in Europe, they will become as corrupt as Europe.” - Thos. Jefferson - capable indiv. farmers w/conduct own affairs - so well that gov’t w/b reduced to minimum - the two clashed over and over again - w/Washington trying to maintain peace b/t them - but disputes weren’t just b/t members of his cabinet - disputes arose in Congress as well - in the House, Madison was leading those who sided w/Jefferson - a strong force against Hamilton - esp. when Hamilton talked about his economic plans - he wanted US to pay it overseas war debt - and to repay the states - and to repay citizens - esp. officers and soldiers of Revolution - had been paid w/certificates, not money - but most had sold their certificates - to speculators at reduced prices - Ham. wanted them paid full price - Jeffersonians said s/b paid to original holders - not speculators who w/profit from them - this showed again the regional split b/t N & S - most speculators were New Englanders - Southerners objected to Nat’l govt assume state debts - all of the South already paid their debts - except N. Carolina - Hamilton suggested they pay for other States’ - a bargain was struck b/t the two sides - the Jeffersonians accepted Hamilton’s plan - in return, North would construct a “federal city” in South - it would later be called Washington D.C. - Hamilton proposed creation of a National Bank - this again, caused bitter debate - Jeffersonians feared it would favor northern commercial interests - over the agricultural sector - Jefferson also said the Constitution said nothing about a national bank - establishing one w/b unconstitutional - Hamilton took the position of the “elastic clause” and he won - 1791 Congress passed bill est. Bank of the United States - and Washington signed it - but battle of opposing opinions was not over - in spite of their differences, Wash’s cabinet d/n think of selves as opponents - near the end of his term, Wash. warned of “faction” - which would divide Americans - make it impossible to cooperate in national affairs - but factions already existed - by time of 1796 election, two political parties ran candidates - Federalist Party was the party of Hamilton - and those who believed in his policies - Wash’s VP John Adams was their candidate - Democratic Republican Party was party of Madison/Jefferson - often called Jefferson Republicans or just Republicans - the election produced an unexpected result - Adams received the most votes in the electoral college & became Pres - Jefferson got the next most votes - according to Constitution, he became VP - Adams was a Federalist, Jefferson a Republican - it produced a stormy administration - Hamilton & supporters pushed Congress to pass Alien &Sedition Act 1798 - 2 of the acts lengthened time necessary to become a citizen - and authorized President to deport dangerous aliens - many immigrants supported the Republicans - these acts were like a political weapon against them - a third act The Sedition Act imposed fines/prison terms for sedition - speech or acts against the government - several Republican newspaper editors were imprisoned over this - in response Jefferson and Madison struck back - Jefferson drafted a set of resolutions adopted by KY legislature - Madison did the same for VA - The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions - said Alien & Sedition Act violated freedoms in Bill of Rts - therefore unconstitutional - said any state had right to nullify/void these laws - the issue was not fully settled until late 1700's - would return to create new tensions in the 1800' - popular concern over the A&S acts damaged the Federalists - plus Adams and Hamilton were having internal party bickering - both were struggling for power - Sept. 1780 Adams got a treaty ending undeclared naval war w/France - won him the Federalist nomination for Pres. in 1800 election - but it d/n increase his popularity - he lost the election - the winners were Jefferson and Aaron Burr of New York - but both had the exact same number of electoral votes - the election went to the House of Reps for a decision - took 2 days, voting over and over w/o a winner -“Many members of the House had sent home for night-caps and pillows, and wrapped in shawls and great-coats, lay about the floor of the committee rooms, or sat sleeping in their seats.” Witness - Hamilton broke the deadlock - much as he hated Jefferson, he hated Burr even more - he gave Jefferson his support - and he was elected on the 36th ballot - the Republicans are now in charge - and would hold on to the presidency for the next four decades U.S. HISTORY: WAR SHAPED A NEW NATIONALISM - in keeping with his republican principals, Jeff. kept govt small - and out of the affairs of the people and the states - he hoped to avoid foreign entanglements and run a thrifty govt - he urged Congress to repeal 2 unpopular taxes and the A&S acts - he also cut military spending made possible by Federalists - he d/n try to destroy all Federalist programs - he honored the debt repayments arranged by Hamilton - he allowed Bank of the United States to continue to operate - his first major political battle involved the federal court system - just before new Congress took over and Federalists still in power - passed Judiciary Act of 1801 - increased number of judges in circuit and lower courts - before leaving office John Adams appointed loyal Federalists to bench - hoping to secure at least the judicial branch for his party - Republicans believed he stayed up all night on his last night to do this - which is why they called the appointed judges midnight judges - one of those appointed was John Marshall - as chief justice he would dominate Sup.Cts of 5 Presidents - Jefferson got Republican Cong. to repeal Judiciary Act of 1801 - but one of the midnight judges Wm. Marbury, w/n accept that - asked Sup Ct to force Sec of State (Madison) to commission him - Marbury vs Madison - Chief Justice Marshall denied Marbury’s request - ruled the Judiciary Act of 1789 was invalid - Marshall had set a precedent - he asserted the Sup. Ct’s power of judicial review - right to declare any law unconstitutional - Jefferson’s problems only got worse - farmers in the west depended on the Miss. River and its tributaries - to transport goods to New Orleans - then shipped to eastern ports or overseas markets - whoever controlled Big Easy controlled the economy of West - in 1801 Jeff. learned that Sp had secretly given Louisiana back to FR - which was now being ruled by Napoleon Bonaparte - Jeff. sent Am. Representatives to FR to offer $2 mil. - for New Orleans and the Floridas - Napoleon then stunned the reps. - said he’d sell all 817,000 sq.mi. of Louisiana - the reps settled at a price of $15 mil. - tho they had no authority from Congress to do so - they hoped Pres. and Congress w/approve of the deal - this was the Louisiana Purchase - but it was a problem for Jeff. - remember he was a strict interpreter of the Constitution - so he knew he had no power to get new territory - he considered amending the Const. to allow the purchase - but feared Napoleon w/change his mind - by the time an amendment w/b approved - he decided to go ahead w/the deal - and Congress confirmed it by voting the funds - now the United States has doubled in size - months B4 the purchase, Jeff. asked Cong. to fund a western expedition - led by his secretary Meriwether Lewis - and joined by a vet of the Indian Wars, William Clark - the purchase of LA made the expedition urgent - it took 18 mos. to travel from St. Louis to the Pacific - they were helped by a Shoshone Indian guide Sacajawea - who carried her “papoose” on her back the entire time - they reached the Pacific in November of 1805 - and returned to St. Louis by Sept. 1806 - w/maps, samples of plants, animals and insects fm Far W. - the people were totally surprised to see them - they had been given up for lost and dead - Jeff’s accomplishments got him re-elected by a landslide in 1804 - but his second term would be troubled by wars in Europe - Napoleon was determined to conquer Europe - and the British were determined to stop him - by 1803 both were at war and had fought to a stalemate - France controlled Europe and GB controlled the seas - both sides tried to block its enemy’s overseas trade - at first neutral US profited by trading w/both sides - but that stopped when GB began to blockade American ports - and intercepted AM ships w/cargoes for France - 1806 & 1807 FR & GB passed laws restricting rights of neutral country - US ships were also the target of impressment by GB ships - many GB sailors, lured by better pay on AM ships deserted - and joined the American merchant ships - they disliked the harsh conditions on British ships - often not allowed off the ship for weeks - wives and sweethearts were smuggled on board - would meet sailors when ship was in port - no privacy to “make up for lost time” - one place was under a cannon - safe and dark and secluded - children were often the result of such meetings - where we get the expression “son of a gun” - GB declared right to stop and search ships for deserters - and impress, or seize, sailors they “thought” were British - desperate for men, they impressed anyone, British or not - American anger grew, and Jeff knew he needed to do something - but he wanted to avoid getting entangled in the war - got Cong. to impose an embargo - an order forbidding all merchant ships from leaving port - no matter whether British or French - the Embargo Act of 1807 w/eliminate possibility of impressment - Jeff also felt GB & FR w/recognize US freedom of seas - by cutting off goods from the US - but both FR and GB ignored the embargo - and American merchants were losing money hand over fist - bringing an economic depression here at home - merchant and shippers began to ignore the embargo as well - especially in New England -they showed their anger by electing Federalists - during the elections of 1808 - Jeff could no longer run for president, having served 2 terms - he chose James Madison to replace him - Madison lost all but one state in New England - some New Englanders began to talk about leaving the union - 1809, 3 days before he left office, Jeff signed the Non-Intercourse Act - replaced the Embargo Act of 1807 - it reopened overseas commerce w/all nations except GB & FR - when he left office, Jefferson was relieved - “Never did a prisoner, released from his chains, feel such relief as I shall on shaking off the shackles of power.” - but the Non-Intercourse Act was just as effective as the Embargo Act - Pres Madison tried to reason w/GB, but it didn’t work - meanwhile a group of Congressmen felt war was only way to defend Amer. - this group was called War Hawks - an agricultural depression in South led both S & N to favor war - Westerners also claimed GB arming Indians - and encouraging attacks on frontier settlements - only New England, dominated by Federalists, resisted the call - but on June 18, 1812 Congress declared war on Great Britain - The War of 1812 was a disaster for the US - we were totally unprepared for war - when we tried to invade Canada, we were humiliated - the British invaded Washington DC - the Madisons were having a dinner party at White House - James had to flee to avoid capture - as the British watched, Dolly tried to save what she could - then the British burned it to the ground - as well as Capitol & other public buildings - the Americans did have some victories - Captain Oliver Perry defeated British fleet in Lake Erie - securing control of the lake - Ft. McHenry, MD, Americans w/stood 3 days of bombardment - kept British fleet from capturing Baltimore - the British had captured an American - held him prisoner on board ship - he watched the bombardment of Ft. McHenry - in the a.m.when he saw the American flag still there - put new words to an old English drinking song - Anacreon in Heaven - he called it “The Star Spangled Banner” - his name was Francis Scott Key - the greatest American victory came at the last major battle of the war - Jan. 8, 1815 in New Orleans - Gen. Andrew Jackson led 5k militia, sailors and citizens - defeated GB’s 8k seasoned troops - GB suffered 2k casualties, US suffered 21 - but the battle was unnecessary - peace treaty had been signed in Ghent, Belgium 2 weeks earlier - another casualty of war was the Federalist Party - Dec. 1814, 26 Feds met in Hartford CT - they d/n know peace talks were close to agreement - they drew up the Hartford Convention - indiv. states c/reject national policies or laws they objected to - this is what the Jeffersonian Republicans have been saying - which the Feds. used to oppose - remember the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions? - news of the peace caught them by surprise and they were humiliated - they looked foolish and unpatriotic - Republicans took advantage of the situation - accused the Federalists of treason - so Hartford Conv. was just another nail in the coffin of Federalists - with the downfall of the Federalists, Republican James Madison easily won - in the election of 1816 AND 1820 - opposition to him was weak - some called this period of time the “era of good feeling” - they would do it again with another president much later - w/war over the economy thrived w/overseas trade which also increased - the population also grew from 7 mil. In 1810 to 13 mil. By 1830 - many of these immigrants came from western Europe - GB, Ireland, Germany - as pop. grew, so did westward expansion - by 1800 VT, KY & TN joined the other 13 states - by 1819 OH, LA, IN, MS, IL, & AL brought number to 22 - 11 were slave states, 11 were free states - settlers were already moving into lands west of Miss. River - esp. territory of Missouri - they applied for statehood in 1819 - Missouri’s application caused a problem - the states WERE balanced regarding slavery - if MO came in a slave state, it would be unequal - also there w/b a question about slavery in the west - “This question involves not only the future character of our nation, but the future weight and influence of the free states. If now lost, it is lost forever.” Newspaper editorial - the issue was settled when ME applied for statehood in 1820 - the Missouri Compromise - MO would enter as slave, ME as free state - in addition, slavery banned north of 36'30" N Lat. - except in MO - the compromise brought back the balance - but the issue would continue for years - Many problems b/t US and GB after the War of 1812 - agreements solved most of the problems - these agreements made under leadership of John Quincy Adams - Monroe’s sec. of state - son of ex-Pres. John Adams - one agreement reduced number of warships - on the Great Lakes and Lake Champlain - another GB and US agreed 49th parallel bordered US & Canada - another was treaty w/Spain that gave legal title of FL to US - and est. western boundaries of LA Purchase - during this time there were several revolutions in South America - trying to throw off rule of the King of Spain like northern cousins - by 1823 most had succeeded - the US grew concerned other Europeans might try to colonize SA - or other places in the Western Hemisphere - at the same time Russia was est. colonies as far south as California - and other areas along the west coast - Adams urged Monroe to issue a warning to Europeans who tried - Monroe finished speech Adams was to give in annual msg to Congress - Dec. 1823 the Monroe Doctrine - said the US recognizes the new govts in Latin America “...the American continents are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for colonization by any European powers.” - in return the US w/n interfere in European affairs - the doctrine was mostly symbolic at the time - we d/n have the power to enforce it - but it would be an important part of our foreign policy later in 19th cen - when we would be ready and able to stand behind its words

AP European History Readings

Reading: Chapter 7 Late Antiquities.... Chapter 8 European Civilization and the Emergence..... Chapter 9 The Recovery and Growth of European..... Chapter 10 The Rise of Kingdoms and the Growth.... You have the entire week plus a few days next week to do all the reading. Be sure to do this assignment. From here on out it will become harder to catch up if you fall behind.

AP European History: Early Middle Ages Focus Questions

1. How and why did feudalism start? 2. What were the important ingredients of feudalism? 3. How did towns begin to develop? 4. What were the parts of an early middle ages town? 5. What is scholasticism and how was it studied? 6. Who were the critics of scholasticism and why were they against it? 7. What were some of the innovations in agriculture during the early middle ages? 8. What is an indulgence, and what was its purpose. What do you think? 9. How does a male become a knight? 10. What is a garderobe? How was it used and prepared for re-use? 11. Define the word hermit. Why would one become one? 12. What is the worst thing that could happen to a person in the middle ages? 13. Describe the different parts of a manor. 14. Why did the population of men go up and down throughout the middle ages? Where did they go? 15. What are the Papal States?

AP European History: Early Middle Ages Notes

THE GROWTH OF FEUDALISM - early middle ages 500 to 1000 - feudalism was the style of government - the feudal system was like a giant pyramid - Ruler was supposed to own all the land - but really the nobles owned it - were called vassals/servants of the crown - they promised to obey the Lord, or master and fight for him if necessary - the land given to the noble called a fief - nobles gave fiefs to those who became their vassals - who would promise to obey the lord and provide knights in time of war - but remember that the nobles were vassals to the ruler king, too - noble’s vassals had vassals of their own - gave fiefs to their vassals - could have several - therefore a noble might be both a lord and a vassal or even vassal to several lords - lords main duty was to protect the vassals - vassal expected to provide knights - also to pay the lord for a fief - also must feed the lord when he visits - which could cost an entire harvest - feudalism began W. Eur. after western empire died - during this time German kingdoms were weak - rulers d/n have strong armies - as a result, landowners built their own armies - local ones to defend them - farmers gave up their land to the landowners - in return for protection - some landowners got more land than they could use - gave it to non-landowners - in return for staying and farming it - large landowners became known as Nobles - German leaders would pay their soldiers w/food, shelter weapons and a share of the loot - when they conquered Rome, they were paid in land - in return for not fighting against the leaders - cavalry was very important part of feudalism - by mid-800's only armies w/cavalries won wars - to build strong armies, kings needed noble’s help - who had their own cavalries - would join king’s forces - and brought knights - soldiers w/armor - if rulers were strong, d/n need as much help from nobles - like Clovis and Charlemagne - but weaker kings needed this help - and this is how feudalism spread - they spent much time fighting each other - to get nobles to fight, had to give up some of their powers to them - after 830 Frankish kingdom attacked by Spain, northern Africa, Hungary and N. Europe - Frankish ruler forced to give up even MORE power - nobles now stronger than before - by 900 feudalism spread through most of Europe. - KNIGHTS - knights had a long training period - only sons of nobles could be one - at 7, sent to castle of parent’s lord - served as a page (helper) until 14 - taught religion, manners - sometimes reading, music - at 14/15 became a squire - assistant to knight - now real training begins - ride a horse, hunt, wear armor - and how to use weapons - at completion, w/be knighted in a ceremony - swore fealty to the lord he would serve - all knights followed a special code of life - chivalry - m/b brave and loyal - must fight for the lord - must treat people politely - must fight to defend Christianity - must protect farmers who lived on land - was beginning of today’s good manners - Feudal wars different from wars of today - armies much smaller - fewer weapons - fewer died b/c of armor - also tried to capture, not kill enemies - could be paid a ransom - people most hurt by feudal wars were commoners - lost homes and lives - to protect them, Popes created two new rules - Peace of God - illegal to harm farmers, traders, priests - Truce of God - illegal to fight b/t Wed. eve.& Mon. morn during certain times of year - so the church helped out here, too - feudal nobles lived in castles - at first simple wooden forts - by late mid-ages were large stone buildings - high towers, thick walls - usually built on hills surrounded by a moat - used drawbridge - if attacked, raised the drawbridge - gate made of heavy iron for extra protection - strongest part was the donjon - storerooms & rooms where lord & family lived - also had cells or rooms for prisoners - donjon = dungeon - most castles built were too difficult to capture - not until gunpowder & guns X2 was it easier - b/t 1300 and 1400 - castles were strong but uncomfortable - rooms dark b/c windows small - rooms were cold and dank - heat came from fireplaces used for cooking - floors made of stone covered w/straw - water came from a well in courtyard - rooms furnished simply - large boards used as tables - stools and benches were chairs - wooden chests stored clothes & bedding - beds on platforms and covered w/curtains - to keep drafts out - nobles were heavy eaters/drinkers - when not fighting, hunted and listened to singers - or played chess or dice - but favorite sport was fighting - in peacetime held tournaments (battle games) - sometimes seemed like real battles - knights c/b killed - but were exciting and many watched WORLD HISTORY NOTES 15 FEUDAL LIFE IN THE MANOR - during early mid-ages, most people in Europe farmers - lived on nobles’s land who was their lord - and farmed it for them - this land called a manor - most manors were large amts of land - and most included a village - w/a manor house, church, farmer’s huts, barns, and a mill to grind grain - lord lived in a castle - stayed in the manor house when visiting a village - two main groups lived in the manor - free people - owned or rented the land, but free to leave - serfs - largest of the two groups - they had no freedom - not allowed to leave w/o lords permission - had to pay for use of lord’s grain mill - pmts made in farm products, not money - required to work 2-3 days a week for lord - in return, given a hut to live in & some land - could use lord’s pasture for their cows, pigs - could gather wood from lord’s forest - and they were protected from enemies - by 1000 new farming tools were developed - the heavy iron plow - easier to cut through the hard soil - the use of horses not cows to pull plow - two inventions made this easier - iron horse shoes - protected horse’s feet - wooden horse collar - protected horse’s neck - could pull heavier loads - another innovation was the three-field system - instead of two field system - one field planted while other recovered - in 3 field system, field divided into 3 - 1 planted w/wheat, rye in winter - 1 planted w/oats, barley, beans, peas in spring - 1 left to recover - was used all over Europe by 1000 - increased the amt and diversity of crops grown - each field divided into strips - one third belonged to the lord - the rest divided among the serfs - got some land from each of the 3 field - so serfs had good land AND bad land - some land close to village, some far - serfs worked together to plant and reap each other’s crops - serfs huts had no windows - hole in roof let in air & light & let out smoke - bed, table, few stools and perhaps a chest - serfs ate whatever they raised - if crop bad (often) might go hungry - but serfs sometimes enjoyed themselves - d/n work on Sundays - or religious holidays - on these days, sang, danced, wrestled, played games WORLD HISTORY NOTES 16 ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH IN THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES - western Roman Empire became weaker during Early middle ages - rulers were weak - nobles had the real power - more & more people depended on the church - for protection - soon the Pope not only leader of the church - but the “Papal States” as well - large territory in N. Italy which included Rome - while some religious people turned to politics - some turned away from the “everyday” world - wanted to worship God in peace - these people were called hermits - some hermits became monks - Greek word monk = alone - groups of monks lived in settlements called monasteries - later women who wanted to do the same b/c nuns - lived in a nunnery - both nuns & monks had to give up everything - lived half life in work, half in prayer - could not marry - monks helped spread Christianity - both monks/nuns nursed the sick, care for poor - some started schools - some copied Greek&Latin books - to preserve the knowledge - some helped turn swamps/forests into farmland - some became artisans/craftsmen - glassmaking, stone & woodcarving, weaving winemaking - it was monks who invented brandy - burnt wine - nuns made fine lace and embroidery - as feudalism grew, nobles grew more powerful - by 900 rulers c/no longer protect church property - and nobles w/take it over - other nobles forced Pope to let them choose the church leaders for their property - a bishop or abbot - who in turn became a vassal of nobles - but rulers & nobles often chose people more interested in money, not religion - some bishops and abbots paid to be chosen - the church also grew weaker b/c church leaders d/n obey church rules - b/t 900-1000 Popes c/n improve conditions of church - but 1070's new Pope - Gregory the VII - said only Popes c/chose bishops/abbots - Henry IV, King of Germanic tribes refused to obey - Gregory asked German nobles to choose new king - unless Henry agreed to obey - nobles hated Henry - ordered him to obey the Pope - Henry agreed - went to all way to Rome - stood barefoot 3 days in snow until Gregory forgave him - but fights b/t leaders & church not over - Henry returned to Rome w/army - forced Gregory to leave Rome - 1122 agreement worked out - Concordat of Worms - concordat = agreement - Pope can choose bishops - but king has to approve - by 1070 most W. Europeans were catholic - church required all to obey certain rules - like take part in sacraments - if not, c/b excommunicated - forced to leave church

AP EUROPEAN HISTORY: ROME

WORLD HISTORY NOTES 7 RISE OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC - Just before he died Alexander planned to invade Italy - but already been conquered by one of its own cities - Italy is also a peninsula - twice the size of Greece - north bounded by high mountains, the Alps - divided Italy from rest of Europe - also mountains throughout Italy - divided by rich land, warm climate, lots of rain - good for farming - so early Italian settlers were farmers - @1000 BCE three groups wandered into Italy - Latins - came in over the Alps from the north - settled in what was to become Rome - Etruscans - from Asia Minor - settled in west Italy - Greeks - settled in south Italy - Latins learned a lot from the Etruscans & Greeks - Etruscans taught them how to build roads and plant crops - Greeks taught them alphabet and religion - all three lived in polis - Rome founded @ 750 BCE - became powerful polis - built on 7 hills along Tiber River - protected them from attack - but Rome able to attack and conquer polis in the north and south - Rome became a major trading center - b/c it was located near several trade routes - this helped Rome grow rapidly - b/t 750 & 500 BCE Rome ruled by Etruscans - Etruscan King ruled w/help of rich landowners - Patricians aka nobles - slowly gained power - @ 500 BCE overthrew the Etruscan King - set up a republic - gov’t where officials elected by citizens - but republic really ruled by Patricians - at head of republic were two elected consuls - usually leaders of army, gov’t or religion - their power limited b/c could only serve one year - real power was in the Senate - 300 Patricians appointed by the consuls for life - they passed laws and chose who w/b voted on for consul - only Patricians c/b consuls, senators or other Gov’t office - Commoners called plebians - Roman soldiers, farmers, workers, traders, etc. - They elected the Assembly - but had little power in gov’t - Plebians finally gained power by clever plan - they moved out of Rome! - Patricians helpless w/o them - Plebians won right to elect 2 tribunes to represent them - they had power to veto laws they d/n like - the Assembly also gained power - Plebians won right to have laws written down - later the right to be senators or other gov’t - but Patricians still most important officers - by 270 BCE Rome ruled most of Italy - allowed conquered cities to rule themselves - in return, pay taxes and supply soldiers for Rome - needed b/c feared attack from Carthage - huge empire that included part of Spain, northern Africa, and some Med. islands - 264 BCE war b/t Carthage & Rome broke out - The Punic Wars, there were several - Rome won the first one - but 2nd time Carthage led by Hannibal - great general - decided to attack Rome by surprise - marched through Spain - captured city and named it after his father Barca for his birthday - Barcelona - crossed Alps into Italy - conquered Rome & stayed 15 years - but in 202 BCE Roman army conquered Carthage - took over and ultimately destroyed it in revenge - stone by stone WORLD HISTORY NOTES 8 THE END OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC - after defeat of Carthage in 202 BCE - Rome now strongest nation in known world - conquered Macedonia, Spain & Greece - and later part of Asia Minor - Didn’t try to conquer Egypt (at least yet) - both countries had become allies - Egypt allowed to remain independent - by 133BCE, Rome controlled entire Med. region - Before Punic Wars, most Romans, rich or poor, led a simple life - but afterwards a new class of rich appeared - would change Roman life - here’s how it happened - When Rome conquered a land, that land was made a province of Rome - & that land was ruled by a Roman official - a governor, usu. an ex-general - a procurator, one of the conquered peoples chosen to represent Rome - most infamous procurator in history was Pontius Pilate - man who condemned Jesus - often they ruled badly - conquered people forced to pay heavy taxes - tax money used to make officials rich - some became rich by selling food to Roman Armies in the provinces - built large fortunes this way - others became rich by buying up farms - during wars taxes very high - farmers had to sell farms to pay taxes - rich Romans bought these farms - combined then into one large farm - worked by slaves - farmers now jobless - moved to city to find work - but no jobs there either - many formed homeless gangs - or became beggars - These new rich Romans gained power in the Senate - main interest was to protect their wealth - poor classes & jobless had little to no power - yet depended on gov’t to feed them - the growing underclass worried leaders - might revolt - 133 BCE Tiberius Gracchus, rich Roman plebian - elected tribune - wanted to help the poor - tried to limit amt of land one could own - any land over limit div’d up and given to poor - many rich Roman senators were landowners - d/n want to give up land - had Tiberius murdered - 123 BCE younger bro. Gaius became tribune - tried to pass laws to help poor - to give them land - to create colonies were poor could start over - to have gov’t sell food to poor at lower prices - Senate d/n like these changes - 121 BCE Gaius learned Senators were going to have him killed like his brother - he committed suicide - Afer Gaius’ death, things got worse - army generals fought for control of gov’t - some supported by Senate, some by the people - fought for many years in this civil war - Meanwhile the country grew weaker - Finally it came down to 2 generals - Pompey - Julius Caesar - famous general who conquered Gaul - present day France - peopled by western European tribe known as the Celts x2 - most Celts were Druids 2 - nature worshipers - he returned to Italy & was strong enough to take control - new ruler of the republic - used his power to help common people - gave citizenship to provinces - passed laws to help poor pay debts - unified provinces w/Rome by roads - improved the calendar - Julian Calendar - used for next 1000 years - was about to make other changes - but Senate feared he was about to name self King - and take away their rights - March 15, 44 BCE (the Ides of March) - Caesar X2 assassinated on steps of the Senate - Marcus Antony delivered the eulogy - (read soliloquy from Shakespeare) - After Caesar’s death civil war resumed - lasted 27 years - in 27BCE Caesar’s grandnephew Octavian defeated other generals - became first emperor of Roman Empire - changed his name to Augustus Caesar - to tie himself with beloved Julius WORLD HISTORY NOTES 9 THE CULTURE OF ROME - Romans carried on Greek culture X2 - w/o Romans Greece w/have been forgotten - Romans accepted Gr.art X3, writing, ideas, science - helped spread ideas throughout empire - also spread idea of democracy - Empire lasted nearly 500 years - 27BCE to 576 ACE - at its largest empire included all of W.&S. Europe, N. Africa, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Mesopot. - large area difficult to govern - but Romans did it - Most of gov’t power centered in Rome - other powers given to provinces - main gov’t d/n try to rule provinces - just obey laws, pay taxes and keep peace - very similar to U.S. gov’t - central gov’t in Wash. D.C. - states like provinces - but Americans are a free people - and have part in gov’t - not Romans - Latin language also important contribution - is basis for all modern Romance languages - Spanish, French, Portuguese, Italian - even English - art = ars= art - culture = cultura = to grow - government = gubernare = to steer - language = lingua = tongue - after empire ended, Latin still used - by educated people all over Europe - Roman Catholic Church - doctors, lawyers - Roman law spread - remember Plebians forced laws to be written down - later laws became more difficult to understand - but were also more fair - during the Republic, special lawyers explained laws - beginnings of judges - later most famous code or collection of laws c. 500 ACE - Emperor Justinian - Justinian’s Code of Laws - contained all laws and explained them - would become basis of laws all over world - Architecture -Romans were great builders - not as beautiful as Greeks - but larger, stronger - b/c used new invention - cement or concrete - also new innovations - arch, vault, barrel vault, etc. - Colosseum - Roman arena w/arches - Aqueducts - brought water to cities - Monuments - arches to honor emperors or battles - some still stand today after 2000 years - Romans built paved roads - thousands of miles tied empire together - most famous was Appian Way - from Rome to SW Italy - Romans wrote plays, poems - different writing style than Greeks - interesting stories about Roman life - Most famous poet was Virgil - wrote “The Aeneid” - story about founding of Rome - Much about what we know of Rome written by two Roman historians Livy and Tacitus - Great speech writers and orators - Cicero - famous Roman leader told about Roman life WORLD HISTORY NOTES 10 LIFE IN ROME - Romans were polytheistic - same gods as Greeks, but renamed - plus they had other gods - including “household” called lares - religion was very important to the Romans - had many priests & temples - some priests were called augers - told gov’t officials what the gods said was important - no business was done w/o augers approval - had many religious holidays - Family life - during Roman Republic, father ruled the family - wife, children, grandchildren - also ran wife’s property - also chose wives for sons and husbands for daughters - women had few legal rights - c/n vote or serve in gov’t - but had more freedom than Greek women - directed household work - trained the children - greeted, took care of guests/visitors - could visit other homes w/husbands - Romans married at a young age - sons at 14, daughters at 12 - families treated each other w/respect - Education - Roman education shaped by Greek ideas - but they were also taught to do good work - not be good citizens, like in Greece - all schools were private - in early years both boys/girls learned to read, write, do arithmetic - afterwards only sons of rich attended school - studies Latin & Greek - read books of the great writers - learned public speaking - some even went to Greece - to continue studies - would be prepared to become lawyers or gov’t officials - Slavery - Romans depended on slaves - most captured in wars - some were artisans, doctors, teachers, engineers - some used as household servants - most used to do hard work - farms, artisans shops, mines - most of these were treated badly - slavery not only hard on the slaves - it caused unemployment by thousands - as more used, more Romans jobless - also more Romans became lazy - depended on slaves to do everything - therefore Romans no longer worked hard to improve themselves - bathhouses - one of the Romans’ favorite pleasures - as important as sports were to Greeks - more than just a place to bathe - had libraries, gardens, exercise rooms - were low cost - some had up to 3000 bathers at one time - Baths of Caracalla (p.278 in art book) - also good place to socialize, network - therefore good social centers - entertainment - Romans went to theaters and plays like Greeks - but enjoyed chariot races X2, too - also gladiator fights held in arenas - gladiator was slave trained to fight - sometimes wild animals - sometimes each other - loser was killed - thumbs up or down - Romans grew to love slaughter - perhaps helped to deal with death - or maybe they became used to it - Theater of Marcellus X2 WORLD HISTORY NOTES 11 THE END OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE - Augustus now Emperor of Rome - knew why Julius was murdered - Senate feared loss of their power - Augustus allowed Senate to keep their power - in return, he would be crowned Emperor - and have all the powers he needed - Augustus d/n try to conquer new territories - worked to improve the provinces already there - to be more honest and well run - in this way the people there w/n revolt - used propaganda to tell Roman people there was peace throughout the empire - this peace lasted 200 years - The Pax Romana - Augustus died 14 ACE - Rome w/b ruled by many successive emperors - Until 180 ACE most emperors ruled wisely - but in 100 years after 180, successive bad emperors - gov’t not ruled well - caused many revolts and wars in empire - 284 ACE general Diocletian became emperor - was strong ruler - had to be to keep empire together - made all gov’t officials report to him - as a result, Senate lost its power - and Roman people lost many of their rights - Diocletian divided empire into two - eastern and western half - he ruled the eastern half - another emperor rules the western half - that would be the Byzantine Empire WORLD HISTORY NOTES 11 THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE - the eastern Roman Empire was called the Byzantine Empire - capital was Constantinopolis - built by Emperor Constantine 330 - on the ruins of old city of Byzantium - well located for trade b/t Europe and Asia - also well protected from attack - Constantine was Christian - and knew religion was spreading - gave Christians religious freedom - 395 Christianity b/c official in Byzantine Emp. - Byzantine emperors were strong rulers - controlled gov’ts - were powerful in religious affairs - leader was called the Patriarch of Constantinopolis - the empire strong enough to defend itself from Germans - and other tribes - when Justinian b/c emperor, tried to reconquer western part of the empire - won most of Italy, N. Africa and part of Spain - Justinian ruled well until death in 565 - in addition to his Codes - also built roads bridges, churches - most famous is Hagia Sophia in Constant. - “holy wisdom” - one of the most beautiful in the world - but empire not strong enough to KEEP western territory - emperors who followed Justinian fought 2 enemies - Persians and Arabs - Byzantines defeated the Persians - but Arabs took N.Africa, Egypt, Syria Palestine - by 750 Arab conquests were stopped - Byzantine Empire now much smaller - but still the largest in Europe - the hundred years of fighting created many changes - emperor now stronger ruler than before - took over all gov’t - empire now divided into provinces - each ruled by a general - chosen by the Emperor and reported to him - Greek replaced Latin as official language - language used in gov’t and churches - helped tie Byzantine Empire together - as gov’t strengthened, again tried to get more land - b/t 900 & 1000 took Greece, Macedonia, Asia Minor, and S. Italy - times were good during these years - merchants traded w/India, China, Persia, Arabia - as well as Europe - were known for silks, jewels, ivory, metalware and glassware - both Byzantine traders and gov’t became rich - meanwhile Byzantine church slowly separating from the church of Rome - became known as Greek Orthodox Church - sent missionaries to Balkans and SE Europe - Slavic languages were spoken here. - Byzantine priests rewrote Bible in these tongues - developed a new alphabet for Slavic words - said to be invented by St. Cyril - cyrillic alphabet - still used in Slavic countries today - most important converted nation was Kiev - Russia’s original name - @ 1000 Russia’s ruler and people became Christian - from there, Byzantine art, writing, alphabet and building style spread to Russia - while Greek language forgotten in West, thrived in East - was, after all, the official language - educated people required to learn it - read the philosophers and writers - Greek culture m/have been lost w/o them - Splitting the empire into two saved the Roman empire - but at the cost of Roman freedom - When Dioclectian died, the 2 empires became separate - Rome remained capital of western - Constantinople became capital of eastern - eastern empire lasted until 153 ACE - but western was destroyed 476 ACE - Why? - one reason was high taxes - turned Romans against gov’t - another was diseases during period - resulted in smaller population - had to hire soldiers from other nations to fight for them - many not loyal to Rome - some would desert - others turn against Rome - another reason was slavery - Romans had become lazy - jobless turned against the gov’t - another reason was brutality - excesses in arena - licentiousness, orgies, anomie - more reasons, too, but all added up to one - Romans no longer supported western empire - Western empire was always in danger of attack - invading Germanic tribes from the north - when empire was strong, held them back - but now weak, and German tribes settled w/in Rome’s borders - 378 ACE Romans fought battle with Visigoth tribe - they would found the country of Spain - Visigoths won - showed the rest of the Germanic peoples that Rome was now too weak to defend itself - Germanic tribes began to attack Rome itself - 410 ACE King of the Visigoths, Alaric captured Rome - 455 another Germanic tribe, the Vandals, nearly destroyed Rome - was basis of new word, vandalism - 476 Rome asked German general Odoacer to help defend it - Odoacer agreed, but just when the invaders attacked he turned on the Romans and conquered the city - the Roman Empire now came to an end