AP EUROPEAN HISTORY: ROME

WORLD HISTORY NOTES 7 RISE OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC - Just before he died Alexander planned to invade Italy - but already been conquered by one of its own cities - Italy is also a peninsula - twice the size of Greece - north bounded by high mountains, the Alps - divided Italy from rest of Europe - also mountains throughout Italy - divided by rich land, warm climate, lots of rain - good for farming - so early Italian settlers were farmers - @1000 BCE three groups wandered into Italy - Latins - came in over the Alps from the north - settled in what was to become Rome - Etruscans - from Asia Minor - settled in west Italy - Greeks - settled in south Italy - Latins learned a lot from the Etruscans & Greeks - Etruscans taught them how to build roads and plant crops - Greeks taught them alphabet and religion - all three lived in polis - Rome founded @ 750 BCE - became powerful polis - built on 7 hills along Tiber River - protected them from attack - but Rome able to attack and conquer polis in the north and south - Rome became a major trading center - b/c it was located near several trade routes - this helped Rome grow rapidly - b/t 750 & 500 BCE Rome ruled by Etruscans - Etruscan King ruled w/help of rich landowners - Patricians aka nobles - slowly gained power - @ 500 BCE overthrew the Etruscan King - set up a republic - gov’t where officials elected by citizens - but republic really ruled by Patricians - at head of republic were two elected consuls - usually leaders of army, gov’t or religion - their power limited b/c could only serve one year - real power was in the Senate - 300 Patricians appointed by the consuls for life - they passed laws and chose who w/b voted on for consul - only Patricians c/b consuls, senators or other Gov’t office - Commoners called plebians - Roman soldiers, farmers, workers, traders, etc. - They elected the Assembly - but had little power in gov’t - Plebians finally gained power by clever plan - they moved out of Rome! - Patricians helpless w/o them - Plebians won right to elect 2 tribunes to represent them - they had power to veto laws they d/n like - the Assembly also gained power - Plebians won right to have laws written down - later the right to be senators or other gov’t - but Patricians still most important officers - by 270 BCE Rome ruled most of Italy - allowed conquered cities to rule themselves - in return, pay taxes and supply soldiers for Rome - needed b/c feared attack from Carthage - huge empire that included part of Spain, northern Africa, and some Med. islands - 264 BCE war b/t Carthage & Rome broke out - The Punic Wars, there were several - Rome won the first one - but 2nd time Carthage led by Hannibal - great general - decided to attack Rome by surprise - marched through Spain - captured city and named it after his father Barca for his birthday - Barcelona - crossed Alps into Italy - conquered Rome & stayed 15 years - but in 202 BCE Roman army conquered Carthage - took over and ultimately destroyed it in revenge - stone by stone WORLD HISTORY NOTES 8 THE END OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC - after defeat of Carthage in 202 BCE - Rome now strongest nation in known world - conquered Macedonia, Spain & Greece - and later part of Asia Minor - Didn’t try to conquer Egypt (at least yet) - both countries had become allies - Egypt allowed to remain independent - by 133BCE, Rome controlled entire Med. region - Before Punic Wars, most Romans, rich or poor, led a simple life - but afterwards a new class of rich appeared - would change Roman life - here’s how it happened - When Rome conquered a land, that land was made a province of Rome - & that land was ruled by a Roman official - a governor, usu. an ex-general - a procurator, one of the conquered peoples chosen to represent Rome - most infamous procurator in history was Pontius Pilate - man who condemned Jesus - often they ruled badly - conquered people forced to pay heavy taxes - tax money used to make officials rich - some became rich by selling food to Roman Armies in the provinces - built large fortunes this way - others became rich by buying up farms - during wars taxes very high - farmers had to sell farms to pay taxes - rich Romans bought these farms - combined then into one large farm - worked by slaves - farmers now jobless - moved to city to find work - but no jobs there either - many formed homeless gangs - or became beggars - These new rich Romans gained power in the Senate - main interest was to protect their wealth - poor classes & jobless had little to no power - yet depended on gov’t to feed them - the growing underclass worried leaders - might revolt - 133 BCE Tiberius Gracchus, rich Roman plebian - elected tribune - wanted to help the poor - tried to limit amt of land one could own - any land over limit div’d up and given to poor - many rich Roman senators were landowners - d/n want to give up land - had Tiberius murdered - 123 BCE younger bro. Gaius became tribune - tried to pass laws to help poor - to give them land - to create colonies were poor could start over - to have gov’t sell food to poor at lower prices - Senate d/n like these changes - 121 BCE Gaius learned Senators were going to have him killed like his brother - he committed suicide - Afer Gaius’ death, things got worse - army generals fought for control of gov’t - some supported by Senate, some by the people - fought for many years in this civil war - Meanwhile the country grew weaker - Finally it came down to 2 generals - Pompey - Julius Caesar - famous general who conquered Gaul - present day France - peopled by western European tribe known as the Celts x2 - most Celts were Druids 2 - nature worshipers - he returned to Italy & was strong enough to take control - new ruler of the republic - used his power to help common people - gave citizenship to provinces - passed laws to help poor pay debts - unified provinces w/Rome by roads - improved the calendar - Julian Calendar - used for next 1000 years - was about to make other changes - but Senate feared he was about to name self King - and take away their rights - March 15, 44 BCE (the Ides of March) - Caesar X2 assassinated on steps of the Senate - Marcus Antony delivered the eulogy - (read soliloquy from Shakespeare) - After Caesar’s death civil war resumed - lasted 27 years - in 27BCE Caesar’s grandnephew Octavian defeated other generals - became first emperor of Roman Empire - changed his name to Augustus Caesar - to tie himself with beloved Julius WORLD HISTORY NOTES 9 THE CULTURE OF ROME - Romans carried on Greek culture X2 - w/o Romans Greece w/have been forgotten - Romans accepted Gr.art X3, writing, ideas, science - helped spread ideas throughout empire - also spread idea of democracy - Empire lasted nearly 500 years - 27BCE to 576 ACE - at its largest empire included all of W.&S. Europe, N. Africa, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Mesopot. - large area difficult to govern - but Romans did it - Most of gov’t power centered in Rome - other powers given to provinces - main gov’t d/n try to rule provinces - just obey laws, pay taxes and keep peace - very similar to U.S. gov’t - central gov’t in Wash. D.C. - states like provinces - but Americans are a free people - and have part in gov’t - not Romans - Latin language also important contribution - is basis for all modern Romance languages - Spanish, French, Portuguese, Italian - even English - art = ars= art - culture = cultura = to grow - government = gubernare = to steer - language = lingua = tongue - after empire ended, Latin still used - by educated people all over Europe - Roman Catholic Church - doctors, lawyers - Roman law spread - remember Plebians forced laws to be written down - later laws became more difficult to understand - but were also more fair - during the Republic, special lawyers explained laws - beginnings of judges - later most famous code or collection of laws c. 500 ACE - Emperor Justinian - Justinian’s Code of Laws - contained all laws and explained them - would become basis of laws all over world - Architecture -Romans were great builders - not as beautiful as Greeks - but larger, stronger - b/c used new invention - cement or concrete - also new innovations - arch, vault, barrel vault, etc. - Colosseum - Roman arena w/arches - Aqueducts - brought water to cities - Monuments - arches to honor emperors or battles - some still stand today after 2000 years - Romans built paved roads - thousands of miles tied empire together - most famous was Appian Way - from Rome to SW Italy - Romans wrote plays, poems - different writing style than Greeks - interesting stories about Roman life - Most famous poet was Virgil - wrote “The Aeneid” - story about founding of Rome - Much about what we know of Rome written by two Roman historians Livy and Tacitus - Great speech writers and orators - Cicero - famous Roman leader told about Roman life WORLD HISTORY NOTES 10 LIFE IN ROME - Romans were polytheistic - same gods as Greeks, but renamed - plus they had other gods - including “household” called lares - religion was very important to the Romans - had many priests & temples - some priests were called augers - told gov’t officials what the gods said was important - no business was done w/o augers approval - had many religious holidays - Family life - during Roman Republic, father ruled the family - wife, children, grandchildren - also ran wife’s property - also chose wives for sons and husbands for daughters - women had few legal rights - c/n vote or serve in gov’t - but had more freedom than Greek women - directed household work - trained the children - greeted, took care of guests/visitors - could visit other homes w/husbands - Romans married at a young age - sons at 14, daughters at 12 - families treated each other w/respect - Education - Roman education shaped by Greek ideas - but they were also taught to do good work - not be good citizens, like in Greece - all schools were private - in early years both boys/girls learned to read, write, do arithmetic - afterwards only sons of rich attended school - studies Latin & Greek - read books of the great writers - learned public speaking - some even went to Greece - to continue studies - would be prepared to become lawyers or gov’t officials - Slavery - Romans depended on slaves - most captured in wars - some were artisans, doctors, teachers, engineers - some used as household servants - most used to do hard work - farms, artisans shops, mines - most of these were treated badly - slavery not only hard on the slaves - it caused unemployment by thousands - as more used, more Romans jobless - also more Romans became lazy - depended on slaves to do everything - therefore Romans no longer worked hard to improve themselves - bathhouses - one of the Romans’ favorite pleasures - as important as sports were to Greeks - more than just a place to bathe - had libraries, gardens, exercise rooms - were low cost - some had up to 3000 bathers at one time - Baths of Caracalla (p.278 in art book) - also good place to socialize, network - therefore good social centers - entertainment - Romans went to theaters and plays like Greeks - but enjoyed chariot races X2, too - also gladiator fights held in arenas - gladiator was slave trained to fight - sometimes wild animals - sometimes each other - loser was killed - thumbs up or down - Romans grew to love slaughter - perhaps helped to deal with death - or maybe they became used to it - Theater of Marcellus X2 WORLD HISTORY NOTES 11 THE END OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE - Augustus now Emperor of Rome - knew why Julius was murdered - Senate feared loss of their power - Augustus allowed Senate to keep their power - in return, he would be crowned Emperor - and have all the powers he needed - Augustus d/n try to conquer new territories - worked to improve the provinces already there - to be more honest and well run - in this way the people there w/n revolt - used propaganda to tell Roman people there was peace throughout the empire - this peace lasted 200 years - The Pax Romana - Augustus died 14 ACE - Rome w/b ruled by many successive emperors - Until 180 ACE most emperors ruled wisely - but in 100 years after 180, successive bad emperors - gov’t not ruled well - caused many revolts and wars in empire - 284 ACE general Diocletian became emperor - was strong ruler - had to be to keep empire together - made all gov’t officials report to him - as a result, Senate lost its power - and Roman people lost many of their rights - Diocletian divided empire into two - eastern and western half - he ruled the eastern half - another emperor rules the western half - that would be the Byzantine Empire WORLD HISTORY NOTES 11 THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE - the eastern Roman Empire was called the Byzantine Empire - capital was Constantinopolis - built by Emperor Constantine 330 - on the ruins of old city of Byzantium - well located for trade b/t Europe and Asia - also well protected from attack - Constantine was Christian - and knew religion was spreading - gave Christians religious freedom - 395 Christianity b/c official in Byzantine Emp. - Byzantine emperors were strong rulers - controlled gov’ts - were powerful in religious affairs - leader was called the Patriarch of Constantinopolis - the empire strong enough to defend itself from Germans - and other tribes - when Justinian b/c emperor, tried to reconquer western part of the empire - won most of Italy, N. Africa and part of Spain - Justinian ruled well until death in 565 - in addition to his Codes - also built roads bridges, churches - most famous is Hagia Sophia in Constant. - “holy wisdom” - one of the most beautiful in the world - but empire not strong enough to KEEP western territory - emperors who followed Justinian fought 2 enemies - Persians and Arabs - Byzantines defeated the Persians - but Arabs took N.Africa, Egypt, Syria Palestine - by 750 Arab conquests were stopped - Byzantine Empire now much smaller - but still the largest in Europe - the hundred years of fighting created many changes - emperor now stronger ruler than before - took over all gov’t - empire now divided into provinces - each ruled by a general - chosen by the Emperor and reported to him - Greek replaced Latin as official language - language used in gov’t and churches - helped tie Byzantine Empire together - as gov’t strengthened, again tried to get more land - b/t 900 & 1000 took Greece, Macedonia, Asia Minor, and S. Italy - times were good during these years - merchants traded w/India, China, Persia, Arabia - as well as Europe - were known for silks, jewels, ivory, metalware and glassware - both Byzantine traders and gov’t became rich - meanwhile Byzantine church slowly separating from the church of Rome - became known as Greek Orthodox Church - sent missionaries to Balkans and SE Europe - Slavic languages were spoken here. - Byzantine priests rewrote Bible in these tongues - developed a new alphabet for Slavic words - said to be invented by St. Cyril - cyrillic alphabet - still used in Slavic countries today - most important converted nation was Kiev - Russia’s original name - @ 1000 Russia’s ruler and people became Christian - from there, Byzantine art, writing, alphabet and building style spread to Russia - while Greek language forgotten in West, thrived in East - was, after all, the official language - educated people required to learn it - read the philosophers and writers - Greek culture m/have been lost w/o them - Splitting the empire into two saved the Roman empire - but at the cost of Roman freedom - When Dioclectian died, the 2 empires became separate - Rome remained capital of western - Constantinople became capital of eastern - eastern empire lasted until 153 ACE - but western was destroyed 476 ACE - Why? - one reason was high taxes - turned Romans against gov’t - another was diseases during period - resulted in smaller population - had to hire soldiers from other nations to fight for them - many not loyal to Rome - some would desert - others turn against Rome - another reason was slavery - Romans had become lazy - jobless turned against the gov’t - another reason was brutality - excesses in arena - licentiousness, orgies, anomie - more reasons, too, but all added up to one - Romans no longer supported western empire - Western empire was always in danger of attack - invading Germanic tribes from the north - when empire was strong, held them back - but now weak, and German tribes settled w/in Rome’s borders - 378 ACE Romans fought battle with Visigoth tribe - they would found the country of Spain - Visigoths won - showed the rest of the Germanic peoples that Rome was now too weak to defend itself - Germanic tribes began to attack Rome itself - 410 ACE King of the Visigoths, Alaric captured Rome - 455 another Germanic tribe, the Vandals, nearly destroyed Rome - was basis of new word, vandalism - 476 Rome asked German general Odoacer to help defend it - Odoacer agreed, but just when the invaders attacked he turned on the Romans and conquered the city - the Roman Empire now came to an end

HONORS GEOGRAPHY: LANDSCAPES AND WATERWAYS

GEOGRAPHY NOTES 3 LANDSCAPES & WATERWAYS - Introduction - Geographers need to know how the earth looks and why - also need to know what it means for the people living there - earth’s surface is divided into two parts - land, water - land portion is divided into lots of different shapes - wrinkled, broken, warped, worn - these shapes are called landforms -together w/soil and plants they make up what covers the earth - because we live on land, we forget that water covers most of the earth - and like landforms, waterways have a variety of shapes/sizes - the patters of these two parts influence how we live - where transport routes are built - how to make a living - this is why we have to study this in geography - natural landscapes - these are landscapes formed by nature - made of of landforms, soil and plants - but landforms are the basic elements of natural landscapes - give the land its shape and influences where plants grow - major landforms are landforms that are quite large - plains, plateaus, mountains, hills - plains: large area of mostly level land - most are no higher than 1,000 feet above sea level - also, altitude changes gradually - some are called coastal plains - they lie near the ocean - ex: Gulf Coastal Plain of U.S. - begins at edge of Gulf of Mexico - goes as far north as Illinois - highest point is less than 500' - plains found on all continents except Antarctica - one of the largest is the Great Plains of N. Am - begins in Canada and ends in Texas - this is example of inland plain - sometimes they’re called high plains - Great Plains slop east from Rockies - at base of mtn, plains 2000' to 5000' asl - they slope so gradually hard to see it - in Europe, North European Plain - from France to Russia - in South America the Pampas area of Argentina - there are many other plains all over the world - plateaus are raised plains covering a large area - rising steeply from the ground up - at least on one side, sometimes both - they are sometimes called mesas or tablelands - some have steep cliffs on one or more sides - w/ mountains and hills on the other sides - ex: Bolivian Plateau in S. Am. - there are plateau areas on most continents - much of Africa is made up of plateaus - in N. Am. one stretches from Ctl Mex. to Canada - Colorado Plateau of US is part of it - highest tableland in the world is Plateau of Tibet - ranges from 10,000 to 15,000 feet asl - mountains defined as have an elevation of at least 2K’ -w/ fairly steep slopes and small summits or tops - very high mtns have different life zones - that change as the altitude increases - ex; Mt.Rainier in WA - many trees at base - higher up, less growth - trees and small plants - this is called the timber line - farther up nothing grows - b/c of high alts., it is very cold at tops - often covered in snow - glaciers, rivers of packed ice, form here - highest mtns in world are Himalayas in Asia - w/highest mtn. in world Mount Everest - 29,028 feet, almost 6 miles high - Andes in So. Am form longest mtn chain in world - 4,000 miles from top to bottom -another mtn chain runs thru Mex. into Canada- the Rocky Mtns - there are important mtns in other countries - the Alps of western Europe - France, Switzerland, Italy and Austria - Africa has few mtn systems - one of the largest are the Atlas Mtns of NW - Australia also has few mtns - and none are very high - many mtns in Antarctica are covered w/glaciers - forming plateaus of ice - there are four major types of mtns - folded caused by upthrusts of earth’s crust - Appalachian mtns in East - fault block huge blocks formed by pressure - and break into separate pieces of fold - Sierra Nevada of CA - dome also created by upthrust - but d/n break or fold - Black Hills of N.Dak - volcanic happen when earth’s crust cracks - molten material is blown out or flows - lava and ashes piled in layers - sometimes high enough to be mtn - May 1980 Mt. St. Helens - Mt. Fujiyama in Japan - hills are fourth major landform - rise above the ground but lower than mtn - range in elevation 500-2000 feet asl - Black Hills of S. Dak are not hills but mtns - hills can be found everywhere in the world - Antarctica, covered by ice - minor landforms - there are way too many to list - they make up small details of major landforms - giving each local area its individual look - the way eyes and wrinkles give people individual look - it’s what makes a hill in New Eng. diff from one in Brazil - might include a valley a section of land b/t to higher areas - deltas low lying land formed by soil deposited by rivers - tidal flats sandy beaches or muddy land formed by tides - all of these give details to the different places and landforms - shaping of landforms - forces inside the earth help structure the land - scientists see the world in three parts - outer part is the crust b/t 10-25 miles thick - below that is the mantle some 1,800 miles thick - made of hot rocklike material - at the center is the core - inner core is solid iron, nickel - outer core is molten - temps range from 4000' to 5000' - heat causes materials in mantle to rise up - creating pressure on crust - if enough pressure could rise, fold or break - this is called diastrophism - sometimes lava flows out of the earth - sometimes slowly - other times with a tremendous explosion - either way, this is called vulcanism - and mtns made this way are called volcanoes - forces on the surface also shape the landforms - one is called weathering - breaking up of rocks into smaller pieces - can be a long slow process - if done mechanically, by pushing or rubbing, it is called disintegration - ex: water leaks into/between rocks and freezes - ice swells causing rocks to crack or break - if weathering is done by chemical action it is called decomposition - chemicals in air, water, and in rocks combine to break rocks - surface is also changed by erosion - means that pieces of rock are carried away - as they move, they grind at others, making more changes - forms or agents of erosion are those things that cause it - moving water, wind, moving ice - glaciers are large rivers of moving ice - inching forward down into alleys - grinding away the earth’s surface - third shaper of land is deposition - as erosion carries rock away, it deposits material in other places - piling up, layer after layer, to make minor landforms - ex: sand dune - sand carried by wind pile up - low places of land are often filled by deposition - soil - second most important element in landscape - one kind may be totally different from another kind - can see this in plowed soil - sometimes rich, brown in color - thick and heavy with nutrients - sometimes shiny black, breaks easily into smaller chunks - sometimes its very sandy - these differences are due to materials which nature produced - which forms the soil - despite the differences in appearance, all soil is made of same basic elements - a mixture of several things - basic part is rock material - but also minerals and organic matter - living or dead plants - plus air and water - most soil is made up of three layers - top layer is called humus - tree leaves, dead, decaying, rotting plants and animals - second layer is what is washed down from top layer - rain does most of the work - but roots also work at this level - they release chemicals into the soil - small animals burrow into the soil - allowing air and water to collect - third level is called parent material - solid rock from which soil is “born” - weathering of parent material contributes to 2nd layer - each of these layers determine what soil is produced - chemicals and minerals also play a part - in many areas of the world, the soil has no humus - sometimes no soil at all, just bare rock - composition of soil determines what to grow there - we call this the fertility of the soil - some are rich, some fair, still others useless - the different types of soil come in five categories - and they occur over large areas or zones of the surface - that is why they are called zonal soils - one kind of zonal soil is lateritic soil - recognizable by its reddish or yellowish colors - found mostly in hot temperatures all year round - high temps and a lot of rain help decompose organic mat. - however heavy rains leach (dissolves) minerals - food for the plants - these soils contain very little humus - found in much of Brazil, Ctl-West Africa, S/SE Asia - and N. Australia - heavy use of fertilizer is needed for good crops - another zonal soil is podzolic soil - Russian word for “ash-colored” - found in forest regions of N. N America, Europe, Asia - b/c of cool temps, humus forms very slowly - since soil receives lots of moisture, minerals are leached - this soil, too, has rather low fertility - third zonal soil also comes from a Russian word - Chernozem but also called Prairie Soil - b/c occurs mostly in regions of grasslands or praries - chernozem means “black earth” - it has lots of humus - soil is very black at the surface - getting lighter the farther you go down - it is only slightly leached and very fertile - found in central N. Am., Pampas of S.Am., and ctl USSR - fourth zonal soil is desert soil - where there is little, if any, rain - desert soils contain little to know humus - since there are few plants to decompose - but on other hand, there is little leaching - also parent material contain lots of minerals for plant food - they can be quite fertile when water is brought to them - by canals or pipes - this is called irrigation - the Imperial Valley of CA is an area of desert soil - it produces a huge amount of crops - corn, grapes, cotton, fruit, etc. - the Negev Desert of Israel is another - there are several large areas on earth where desert soils are - Western US, Sahara, SW Asia, W.Ctl. Part of Australia - last zonal soil is cold-land soil - where temps are low throughout the year - here, soil formation is low - b/c of low temps, the soil layer u/g is permanently frozen - Permafrost - only when ground layer over permafrost thaws can plants grow - when that happens the soil beome quite fertile - N. Can., N. AK., N. Europe, Asia - plants - with landforms and soil, landscapes are also made up of plants - it’s usually the first thing you notice - they are necessary to support human and animal life - both directly and indirectly - the distribution of plants depends on the landforms, soil and climate - plants, like people, live in communities - ex: a forest with trees, vines, bushes, grass, mosses - some communities have many different plants - ex: tropical areas - some, like deserts, have very few communities - each area of the earth has a plant community best suited for its conditions - of soil, climate, and landforms - ex: a fire destroys a certain forest area - at first, only grasses would grow - then bushes would return, and later, trees - plants not suited to the area would be pushed out by newer plants - this is called succession - eventually the community is established which is best suited - unless some drastic change takes place, it stays that way - this last process of succession is called a climax community - distribution of plants can be considered in three categories - forests, grasslands, dry areas - different forms of plants live in these different areas - but ea. category is different b/c in ea. a particular plant is important - in forests, trees are most important - although grass and other plants grow there - in grasslands, ....duh - though some trees grow in grasslands but are scattered - certain plants even grow in dry areas like cactus, agave, etc. - even some grasses grow, but few trees like creosote - there are several different kinds of forest communities in the world - much of the eastern half of the US was once total forest - made up of trees w/broad leaves like maple - which fall off in the winter and rtn in warm spring - these are called deciduous trees - in SW US forest was largely pine trees having needles and cones - because they have cones they are called conifers - and because they keep their leaves (needles) all year round - they are called evergreens - much of Europe was covered w/trees like the US - both breadleaf deciduous and evergreen conifers - Asia and Japan was also covered in these trees - today, most evergreen and coniferous trees c/b found in Canada, N. Europe, and Russia - broadleaf evergreen forests are found where temps are high - and there is abundant rainfall - called tropical rainforests - found in Brazil, Ctl. & W. Africa, and SE Asia - in addition to diff. forest communities, there are three kinds of grasslands - prairie, steppe, and savanna - prairie: continuous mat of tall grass sometimes 2' high - E. plains of N. Am u2b a prairie - pampas region of Argentina - steppe: prairies that get much less rainfall - mat of grass is much shorter - W. Great Plains is a steppe - largest steppe region in the world is in Central Asia - savanna: areas with little or no rainfall for part of the year - grasses grow in clumps instead of a mat - widely spread trees also grow - acacia - largest savanna in the world is in Africa - other large areas in Ctl. Brazil, and N. Australia - dry vegetation areas receive even less rain than savannas - one is a desert - in some like Am. west, widely scattered clumps of grass - plus small shrubs and plants like cactus - in very dry areas, like the Sahara, there are few or no plants - the other is called a tundra - an area where cold temps all year prevent much plant growth - maybe a lot of water around, but most of it is ice - plants can’t use it unless it thaws - vegetation consists of lichens and very short shrubs - found mostly in northern N. Am., and Asia - the distrib.of plant communities affects distrib.of animal communities - ex: deserts support snakes, lizards and small rodents - forests support bears, elk and mountain lions - geographers have a name for this combination of plants and animals that exist in one area - they call it a biome - because there are many different soils, climates and plant communities - there are different biomes as well QUESTIONS- 1. Name the four major landforms 2. What are the three parts which make up the earth’s structure 3. Explain the things which combine to produce soil 4. What are the three major categories of plant communities?

AP U.S. History

The Meeting of 3 Cultures and England & France Challenge Spain - in the late 15th and early 16th centuries 3 cultures met - Native American, African and European - began process of cooperation and conflict - helped shape world as we know it today - some 30K y/ago W. Hem. said to be uninhabited - soon early peoples began to arrive from Asia - across Bering Strait - land bridge from Asia to W. Hem. - were early hunter/gatherers hunting game animals - they fanned out south and east - became ancestors of almost all native peoples in N & S. Amer. - all adapted to variety of geographic conditions - the Europeans would call these people Indians - Native Americans - most advanced native Amer. culture arose in present day Mexico - and Central America - @ 500 BCE Maya dev. civilization chiefly located in Yucatan Pen. - dominated area for roughly 1700 years - made many lasting intellectual achievements - highly advanced systems of writing - an accurate calendar - the new concept of the number zero - @ 13th century, warlike people swept into Mexico from northwest - possibly southern Utah, northern New Mexico - the Aztecs - by time of Cortes’ arrival, had control of the entire area - governing empire of over 5 million - over time they developed advanced form of gov’t - meanwhile to north, other different cultures developing - SW U.S. hunters became farmers as early as 2000 BCE - grew corn, beans, squash - and cucorbits - pumpkin family - squash, cucumber, gourd, watermelon, cantelope - central North America - Indians adapted to prairies, plains, dense forests - hunted large game animals, cultivated cucorbits - bison provided food, clothing, tools - some of most impressive societies were the moundbuilders - when migrants arrived @ 800 BCE, adapted their knowledge in agriculture to the rich fertile soils - formed a distinct culture, using earthen mounds, some 70' high - for burial of their dead - ceremonial mounds sculpted in geometric designs - or in shape of human, bird, serpents - several mound building societies followed each other - until began to decline @ 1,000 years ago - a few centuries later, a new mound building culture began - emerged around the Mississippi Valley - centered near Cahokia, IL. - city of perhaps 40,000 - this, too, declined over time - but not before influence spread - from WI to LA, and OK to TN - by time of arrival of Spanish @ 1500's - Pueblo people were using irrigation canals, dams, terracing - they were ancestors of Hopi and Zuni - in contrast, people of Great Plains hunted bison - while also cultivating crops - in eastern woodlands, Indians skilled at farming - grew cucorbits and melons - also used rivers and sea for fishing and trade - Africans - Africa supported a variety of cultures adapted to geography - just like America - W. Afr, south of Sahara, home to most of Africans who would eventually be sent as slaves to Americas - for at least 10,000 years before Europeans came (@ 1400) - land of vast grasslands and tropical rainforests was inhabited by farmers, traders - since 500 ACE northern portion governed by series of large empires - first: Kingdom of Ghana (500-1235) - then successors: Kingdom of Mali (1235- 1468) - and Songhai (1468 - 1590) - these kingdoms controlled trade w/Muslims across Sahara - in addition to salt, silk and other goods, Islam spread too - Europeans - before mid 1400's, they were unprepared to take lead in exploration - feudal nobles dominated small districts - precluding any strong central government - intellectually most ignorant of classical learning - meant unaware of the larger world - plagues took devastating toll on population - slowly however changes occurred - Europe became more prosperous and population began to grow - this cultural revival was called the Renaissance - stimulated learning in art, literature, science - technological advances in ship design and navigation - opened up new means of travel and exploration - esp. for the Portuguese - at same time strong national monarchies began to develop - in England, France, Spain and Portugal - the Reformation challenged traditional dominance of the Church - leading to est. of new Protestant churches - persecution of these Protestants would eventually lead to N. Am - first lasting contact w/new world came w/Columbus - his voyages awakened spirit of exploration throughout Europe - Hernan Cortes, Francisco Pizarro - conquered Aztecs and Incas, respectively - Europeans took tremendous wealth from Indians - both material and cultural - also brought disease - decimating New World population in short amt of time - by mid 1600's, Spanish conquest became Spanish colonization - extending over much of N. and S. America, & islands of Caribbean - restrictive gov’t policies discouraged large scale immigration - Spanish gov’t wanted to convert Indians to Roman Cath. - also colonies were to enrich Spain financially - by forcing natives to work gold, silver mines, sugar cane fields - frequently Spanish treated Indians like slaves - many lost lives to these harsh conditions - as native pop. dwindled, Spain looked to African slave trade - to provide supply of labor - field hands, miners, skilled metal workers, herding, horseback riding, fishing, rice cultivation - most slaves came from W. African coastline - from Senegal to Angola - slave labor produced wealth that eventually made European industrialization possible - Spain wanted to protect its Central and S. American colonies - so est settlements north of Mexico - present day Florida, TX, NM, CA - served as buffers b/t New Spain and European rivals - England and France - among most important outposts were - St. Augustine (est. 1565) oldest European town in N. America - San Juan Pueblo on Rio Grande (1598) - El Paso, then a part of New Mexico (1659) - size of Spanish empire made it hard to govern - northern border lands never held firmly - challenges from Eng. and Fr. limited Spain’s new world ventures to areas south of Rio Grande - England’s challenge to Spain’s New World Claims - based on voyages of Sebastian Cabot - when Eliz. I became queen, England began its rise - English sea dogs raided Spanish treasure ships - led often by Sir Francis Drake - 1588 English navy defeated Spanish Armada - fleet of 130 ships sent to invade England - meanwhile French laying claim to parts of N. America - Fr. explorers traveled into N. Am interior - giving Fr. claim to land from St. Lawrence river - west to Rocky Mountains - south along the Mississippi River to Gulf of Mexico - their success based mainly on well developed fur trade - esp. w/regions Indians - defeat of Spanish Armada was turning point in Eur. and American history - w/Spain out of way, English colonialization began in earnest - creation of new business organization - Joint Stock Company - spread financial risk among several investors - helped colonial efforts - Jamestown, VA, est. 1607 was one of these successes - early years were difficult - harsh winters, diseases took their toll - esp. since colonists were unprepared - economic survival came slowly, however - through cultivation of mild strains of tobacco - to feed a growing demand in England - liberal land policies also attracted settlers - as did the introduction of an elected assembly - the House of Burgesses - first, freely elected representative body in colonial world - it assured English settlers w/have all legal privileges and protections known as “rights of Englishmen” - these rights go back to 1215 - King John forced to sign the Magna Carta - charter of liberties and limitations on royal authority - so English colonists took to Jamestown the very guarantees against absolute rule that their countrymen/women had won centuries ago U.S. HISTORY: ENGLAND AND FRANCE CHALLENGE SPAIN SPAIN - in the 15th century, Spanish conquest had changed to colonization - conquistadors replaced by pioneers - they had hoped to convert these new Spanish subjects - and also to make Spain rich from the resources - this would mean subjugation of the Indians - the Americas had a vast wealth in resources - rich silver mines, fertile fields of sugar cane - both these required intensive labor - enter the Indians as laborers for the Crown -also the Spanish land policy ensured Indians always worked for whites - King granted trusteeship over the Indians - given to colonists in return for loyalty - these were called encomiendas - Indians were often treated as slaves - many died under horrible work conditions - their treatment bothered some Spanish esp in the church - Bartolomeo de las Casas - first outspoken critic of Spanish rule - wrote about mistreatment of Indians - it is from his writings that we know today how cruel the Spanish were - this high demand for labor soon spread to Africans as well - thousands brought here as slaves during 16th century - most were skilled - metal work, herding, horseback riding - fishing, rice cultivation - most were West Africans - sold along coast from Senegal to Angola - 3,000 mile stretch - they labored in the sugar fields as well - making Europeans rich - helped make industrialization possible - and money made in GB help buy more slaves - Spain wanted to protect its interests from other European colonies - which accounts for most of it settlements north of Mexico - Florida, Texas, New Mexico, California - served as buffer zones b/t Spain and her rivals - each outpost organized around two institutions - the presidio - fortified area of the settlement - if attacked, settlers took shelter inside - the mission - religious center of the settlement - priests devoted to converting the Indians - and teaching them Spanish culture - among most important settlements were three of them - Saint Augustine, founded in 1565 - oldest European town in America - Spanish Navy protected its ships from there - San Juan Pueblo founded 1598 - today it’s called San Gabriel but not this one - it’s actually in what is now Colorado - was an outpost on the Rio Grande - El Paso founded 1690 in what was then part of N. Mex. - now in Texas - built to stop French from Mississippi and Red Riv.s - Spain’s New World Empire made it the most powerful nation in the world - yet they had their weaknesses - its size made it difficult to run efficiently - Its tight control over all aspects of life d/n sit well w/colonists - finally, Spain d/n have sufficient $ to pay for everything tried - this meant that Spain’s hold was not as firm as they thought - meaning other countries could, and will, challenge that power ENGLAND - 1497 King Henry VII sponsored first voyage to New World - hired Genoese John Cabot - Cabot wanted to find the NW Passage - land link b/t Atlantic and Pacific - never found it - nor did his son, Sebastian in 1509 - but it did give the English a claim to America - under Henry VIII and his daughter Elizabeth, things got better - under then England grew stronger and richer - the English were filled with pride - their navy was one of the world’s best - protection against rivals - as their power grew, so did their desire to take on the Spanish - both politically and economically - King Phillip was devoutly Catholic - Queen Elizabeth was head of the Protestant Church - so religious nationalism also drove ambitions - Elizabeth d/n want to challenge Spain too soon - instead, she gave money to merchant sailors - to support them in their efforts - to steal Spanish gold and sink the ships - they were called sea dogs - today we would call them pirates - most famous was Sir. Francis Drake - dashing, daring, a favorite of Elizabeth - Dec. 1577 he began his most famous adventure - sailed through straits of Magellan to the west coast of Ctl. America - where the Spanish never expected an attack from Pacific side - so left treasure ships unarmed and unguarded - Drakes “Pelican” was soon laden with Spanish loot - he then continued his journey around the world which took 3 years - upon his return to England, renamed Pelican “Golden Hind” - all of England celebrated - the Spanish less so - the King demanded Drake be executed for piracy - Drake sailed the Hind up the Thames and invited Queen to dinner - she accepted - at dinner, she made fun of the Spanish King - “The King of Spain has demanded Drake’s head of me., and here I have a gilded sword to strike it off.” - she ordered Drake to kneel before her - “I bid thee rise, Sir Francis Drake” - what Elizabeth had done was virtually declared war on Spain - Spain began to amass a huge navy to invade England - the Spanish Armada - 1588: 130 ships, 30,000 troops set sail for England - under Drake’s command, smaller English navy held its ground - they were smaller and faster - Spanish ships larger and slower - battle lasted 10 days - Spanish pulled back along the Scottish coast to make repairs - a huge storm destroyed most of the ships - Drake’s ships destroyed the rest - the entire Armada was lost...Spain had met defeat FRANCE - France joined the rush to colonize America in the early 1500's - discovery voyages by Giovanni da Verrazano, Jacques Cartier - gave them claim to part of N. America - first successful settlements were est. by Samuel de Champlain - 1608: Indian village called Stadacona - along the St. Lawrence River - he est. the new city of Quebec - he then traveled south to NY state - made friends with the Huron - helped them defeat their enemies, the Mohawks - bad thing to have done - Mohawks belong to League of the Iroquois - powerful confederation - from that day on, Mohawks fought w/enemies of FR - Champlain explored the Great Lakes region - other explorers sent to the river valleys - Jesuit missionary Father Jacques Marquette - daring fur trader Louis Joliet - 1673 canoed from Lake Michigan down Mississippi - went for hundreds of miles - few years later Robert de la Salle reached the mouth of MS - claimed it for France, and named it after King Louis XIV - Louisiana - France now claimed all land from mouth of St. Lawrence, west to Rockies, and south along Mississippi to Gulf of Mexico - French success rested mainly w/fur trade - well organized and grew rapidly - but required a relationship with the Indians who supplied the furs - except for the Iroquois - missionaries and traders lived with the Indians - some intermarried - traders were known as coureurs de bois, runners of the woods - left Montreal in fall and headed for interior - returned with canoes piled high with furs - they would celebrate together on banks of St. Lawrence - party lasted several weeks - Indians traded pelts for knives, axes, hatchets, hoes, kettles - woolen blankets, colored cotton cloth, guns, gunpowder, brandy - New France had several weaknesses - few colonists came to settle in the region - most preferred to be coureurs de bois, not settlers - King’s Louis land policy was to blame mostly - gave large grants to nobles called seigneurs - rather than give land to ordinary French citizens - only Roman Catholics could settle in New France - Protestants never made to feel welcome - like Spanish, French exercised strict control over settlements - colonists had no say in how they were to be governed - therefore developing any kind of self reliance JAMESTOWN - Spain’s defeat in the Armada let GB focus on its claim to the New World - even before Drake, British eager to colonize - one was Walter Raleigh - made several attempts to colonize Virginia - first success was Roanoke 1587 - led by John White - went so well White ret’d to GB for more supplies - but c/n b/c of Drake’s war with the Armada - stuck in England 3 years - when he returned, 1590 site deserted - all disappeared - name Croatoan carved on poast - only clue as to what happened - among missing was White’s own daughter - Virginia Dare - first child born in America - financial loss from this disaster was tremendous - unlike kings of Spain and France, GB refused to pay for its colonies - few individuals willing to risk their fortunes - as Raleigh had done - so question remained, how will England create its empire in New Wor - answer was a new business venture - the joint stock company - owned by investors who bought shares in it - since there were many investors, less chance of total loss - 1606 two joint stock companies formed - Virginia Company of Plymouth - Virginia Company of London - both granted a charter by James I to create colonies - Plymouth company failed to est. colony b/t Chesapeake Bay and ME - so it meant London company would have to try - on land south of Chesapeake Bay - to north of Spanish Florida - Dec. 1606 120 men and boys left London on rainy day - last hope for London company - they arrived in the spring at Virginia - spirits soared at lush green and blooming flowers - they named the river they were on James River - 30 miles upstream they weighed anchor - and established Jamestown (after the King) - to them, the location was ideal - on a peninsula w/view of river - any Spanish ships c/b sighted - GB’s position c/b defended - but appearances were deceiving - Low ground meant well water was brackish, polluted - marshes and swamps breeding ground for mosquitos - over the years malaria, typhoid ravaged the settlement - London Co. had sent along instructions for the colonists - ordered to search for gold and other valuable minerals - explore the regions waterways - look for NW passage - convert the Indians to Christianity - live and work for the common good - reality made a mockery of these orders - No gold, no NW passage - Indians (Powhatan Confederacy) not interested in conversion - few settlers had survival skills for harsh life there - so different from England’s cultivated green farms - spring passed, then summer - colonists were still not ready for winter that lay ahead - man who salvaged the situation was John Smith - had escaped Middle East Turks - spent most of his time on ship below deck in irons - was rowdy, overconfident, boastful, liar, self-promoter - but he knew how to take advantage of a situation - and how to milk it for all it was worth - soon he was in command of the colony - ordered the men to work - they had done little to prepare - they cut logs to build a fort - while he explored the countryside - watching for hostile Indians or Spanish - on one trip, captured by the Powhatans - this is the origin of the Pocahontas myth - but she was only 12 years old - the story may have been false - but he did manage to get Powhatans’ help - arranged to buy corn to feed starving men - sent colonists to fish and hunt oysters - as taught by the Indians - he dominated the colony until 1609 - a suspicious explosion of gunpowder injured him - he returned to England - most of the 500 colonists celebrated when he left - by stopping the work they were doing - by winter, they realized their mistake - quotation from one of the 50 survivors re: The Starving Time” - “as for corn, provision, and contribution from the savages, we had nothing but mortal wounds, with clubs and arrows...so great was our famine, that a savage we slew and buried, the poorer sort took him up again and ate him, and so did diverse one another boiled and stewed with roots and herbs. And one amongst the rest did kill his wife, powdered (salted) her, and had eaten part of here before it was known.” - despite the starving time, London Co. still sent colonists/supplies to VA - soon survival became an economic rather than physical one - what could colony produce that would make it profitable - the answer: a weed called tobacco - Indians grew it for their own use - but too bitter for British taste - John Rolfe began to experiment with milder strains - imported from West Indies - his experiment was a success - tobacco became brown gold of the colony - when London Co. revised its land policies Virginia colony grew population - it was finally making a profit - but needed more people to work the land - so London company created the headright system - if colonists pay their way across were given 50 acres of land - this increased the population - but still most were male - so 1619 company sent “young maids” - “to be housed, lodged, and provided for of diet until they be married.” - to buy a bride cost 120 L of the best leaf tobacco - as part of its policy, London company gave male colonists new power - they elected a representative body - House of Burgesses - 22 members - first freely elected representative body in America - settlers w/h all “rights of Englishmen” - these rights have a long history - 1215 Magna Carta cut power of king - and created Parliament - this was a guarantee against absolute rule - this displeased James in 1619 - preferred to think of himself as an absolute ruler - resented London company’s actions w/colonists - took away Virginia’s charter and made it a Royal Colony - under his direct control - d/n abolish Burgesses - continued to meet and assist in making laws - thus began the English experience in North America

AP United States History

Reading: Part One, Chapter One, New World Beginnings, pp 2 - 24. Be ready to discuss the readings at any time.

AP European History

Reading: Take time to get acquainted with your textbook, looking through the different periods in European history. Then read the earliest chapters on the first civilizations, from the Mesopotamians to the Greeks. Be ready to talk about it at any time.

AP European History: Ancient Civilizations and Ancient Greece

THE BIRTH OF CIVILIZATIONS - Early man identified by tools and fossils, etc. - Paleolithic Old Stone Age - @ 2 million years ago - people nomadic - hunter/gatherers - developed language - developed religion @ 10,000 years ago Neolithic era - New Stone Age - 1st farmers - better tools and buildings - cloth & pottery - domesticated animals - fire - trade between villages - invention of the wheel - copper working invented - then bronze from mixing metals - The Bronze Age - associated with ancient Greece - Many civilizations began close to rivers - four great river valleys - Egypt - Nile - China - Yellow - India - Indus - Mesopotamia - Tigris and Euphrates - The Fertile Crescent - Mesopotamia - “the land between two rivers” - polytheistic - trade was very important (barter system) - Sumer the first great city of Mesopotamia - Sumerians invented writing - cuneiform - 2350 BCE - Sumerians conquered by Sargon the Great of Akkad - he established the first Empire - other civilizations progressed into city/states - Mesopotamians invented multiplication, division, geometry, astronomy - 1792BCE it was unified under one ruler in the city/state called Babylon - ruled by Hammurabi - codified laws, some used today - Stele of Hammurabi Egypt - another center of civilization was in the Nile River valley - farms sprang up due to rich fertile soil after flood - Egypt’s Gift of the Nile - the farms turned to villages, then to 2 kingdoms - Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt - around 3100 BCE Menes brought the two together - changed his name to Narmer - he was considered the first Pharaoh - Egyptian civ. continued for at least 30 dynasties - after Menes, there were three periods of strong dynasties - The Old Kingdom - 2686- 2181 BCE - Age of the Pyramids - The Middle Kingdom - 2040 - 1786 - trade flourished during this time - w/Syria, Palestine & Crete - The New Kingdom - 1570-1090 - the Egyptian Empire established - from Euphrates south to Africa - while rulers changed, the culture remained same - for 3000 years - religion played important part of life - government was a theocracy - were polytheistic - believed gods influenced forces of nature - legend of Osiris, Isis, Horus, Seth, Anubis - believed in life after death - source of the mummy ritual - entrails taken out and put in canopic jars - brain whipped by stick and sucked out of nose - body left to soak in natron for more than 70 days - kind of salt - leaves body dark and rigid - then body wrapped and put in sarcophagus - and buried - hence the pyramids - Khufu or Cheops - Khafre - Menkaure - family members were buried in mastabas - the first designer of pyramids was Imhotep - built several pyramids for the Pharaoh Zoser - several survive today - notably the step pyramid of Saqqara - they invented hieroglyphics - writing on papyrus - sometimes on cartouches - developed a calendar more accurate then Sumerians - engineers used geometry - to build and plan irrigation works - they were first to use stone columns - the remains of their architecture is proof, well built - by 1200 BCE their power had peaked - others were coming into power. WORLD HISTORY NOTED #3 CULTURE OF CRETE - CRETE - half way between Egypt and Greece - c. 3000 BCE - Egypt & Mesopotamia carried goods there - soon Crete began trading w/them - and other Mediterranean lands - Cretans learned from these people. - to make better tools of copper and bronze - to make pottery & jewelry - to build stone buildings - learned Egyptian art - and religions of the area - they made many changes to what they learned - art was different than the Egyptians - writing was different from Mesopotamians - The culture became known as Minoan - after King Minos - by 2000 BCE Crete was a great trading nation - olive oil, wine, jewelry, fine pottery, tools - brought back grain, tin, ivory, gold, and salt - these traders started colonies in Greece, Asia Minor and other lands - and w/traders, the culture followed - During early days, Crete divided into many city/states - c. 2000 BCE Thira exploded and destroyed most Cretan city/states - Knossos became strongest city and capital - ruins of palace show that the King was rich and powerful (*11) - palace had several chapels, throne room, mtg rooms, etc. - even had running water for sewers! - Life was easier than Egyptians and Mesopotamians - Crete d/n need a large army - their navy was powerful enough - they had enough food and plenty of rain and good land - their trade brought in goods that most Cretans could afford - .c. 1400 BCE Knossos & other Cretan cities destroyed by navy of Mycenae - a city in southern Greece - was begun around 3000 BCE - ruled by Achaeans - they took over Crete’s trade - also Crete’s way of life - also made jewelry, pottery, metal ware - able to build walls 30-50' thick - But they never became as powerful as the Cretans - so Minoan culture d/n develop under Mycenae - Achaeans were very warlike people - attacked Troy - written in book by Homer called The Iliad - Troy in Greek is Ilium - i.e. The Trojan War - and conquered it - Hellas (Helen) = Greece - was metaphor - But soon Mycenae invaded by northern Greeks - The Dorians - by 1000 BCE they conquered all of Greece - also destroyed much of Mycenaean culture - reading, writing no longer important - pottery & tools not as well made - but the idea of city/state remained - also certain ideas about religion WORLD HISTORY NOTES 4 GREEK CITY/STATES - Greece is a peninsula - land surrounded on three sides by water - @ size of state of Pennsylvania mostly mountains - divided Greece into many small sections - difficult to travel from one place to another - explains why most Greeks settled in small cities - also explains why Greece d/n become united, like Egypt - After Dorians conquered Greece they became farmers - mixed w/conquered peoples - Greeks of today come from this mixture - slowly cities became center of Greek life each one a small nation - called polis - had own king, laws, army of free citizens - thought of themselves as citizens of polis - not citizens of Greece - City included all the land around it - had less than 10,000 people - were well organized & had strong gov’ts - fought wars, made treaties, collected taxes - Kings ruled w/help of the nobles - but by 750 BCE nobles became too powerful - took away most of King’s power and used powers to tax the people - most people were small farmers unable to pay taxes - nobles took their farms - many farmers sold into slavery - some farmers tried to improve their lives - left Greece and began colonies - along coast of Asia Minor, Italy, N. Africa - also many Mediterranean islands - others fought w/nobles - tried to replace them with tyrants - a ruler who controls the gov’t - many were wise rulers - cut power of the nobles - allowed the people to make their own laws - was beginning of democracy - a gov’t ruled by the people - Athens was leading polis where democracy was born - during 600's BCE, Athenian nobles made all laws - were not written down - few commoners knew what laws were - @ 620 BCE nobleman Draco wrote them down - helped people know what their rights were - 594 BCE another noble, Solon, also helped people - times were bad for farmers - many owed money to nobles - who already owned most of the land & $ - Solon ordered that $ d/n have to be paid - also made it illegal to be sold into slavery if unable to pay - also limited amt. of land anyone can own - and allowed common people to share in making the laws - for this, Solon was called “The Lawgiver” - When Athenian nobles tried to stop changes, people supported the tyrants - and defeated the nobles -by 500 BCE Athens ruled by the Assembly - meeting of all male citizens over 18 years old - this soon became too large - so they elected a Council of 500 - and a group of 10 generals - these people ran the gov’t - w/all actions approved by the Assembly - in this way, Athens became a limited democracy - Not all polis became democracies - Ex: Sparta in southern Greece - ruled by 2 Kings and Council of Nobles - one king in charge of religion. i.e. high priest? - to Spartans, the need of state more imp. than needs of the individual - boys had to serve in army from 7 y/o to 30 - girls trained to be mothers, wives - Sparta became a strong, warlike state WORLD HISTORY NOTES 5 THE GOLDEN AGE OF GREECE - Greece’s number one enemy, The Persian Empire - included Greek colonies in Asia Minor - fought w/Greek polis, including Athens - started in 500 BCE - when Greek colonies revolted against Persians in Asia Minor - Athens sent ships to help colonies - Persia declared war on Athens - 490 BCE Persians sent 25K men to city of Marathon - 25 miles north of Athens - 10K Athenians waited for Persians to invade from the north - while Athens waited for sea attack - Athenians at Marathon outnumbered - but charged the Persians - who were unused to fighting Greek style and on rocky land - also they wore light armor - the Athenians were well disciplined - after several hours, the Persians fled - finally tally - Persians lost 6,400 - Athenians 192 - But now Athens defenseless - most in Marathon fighting off Persians and all tired - and Persian navy on the way - Army leaders knew that if they could inform Athens of their victory, Athens w/n give up - so they chose young Pheidippides - he ran 25 miles to tell king of victory - “Rejoice! We conquer” - then he fell dead at the King’s feet - but Athens now knew they should not give up - actually waited at shore line for Persians - who took one look and turned around - Persian wars continued - Athenians lost at Battle of Thermopylae in 480BCE - but by 479 BCE Greeks won Persian War - at final battle at Plataea - Much of Athens destroyed during the wars - now time to rebuild - rebuilt temples on the Acropolis (High City) - religious center of Athens - most important building was Parthenon - temple to Athena - most buildings made of marble, very beautiful - statues made by greatest sculptors in world - between 460-429 BCE Athens became more democratic - Assembly gained power - now all citizens had right to be gov’t official - however only men whose both parents born in Athens could be citizens - women, slaves, foreigners could not - was same in other polis’ - so democracy was a limited one - and this idea would spread - Athens led by Pericles - greatest leader in history of Athens - under him Greece would reach its Golden Age - produced great plays - Athenians loved the theater - comedies made fun of leading citizens - tragedies dealt w/serious matters - good vs evil, etc. - Oedipus Rex - most plays still seen today - produced philosophers (lovers of knowledge) - Socrates: search for truth by asking ?’s - Plato: “The Republic” how to have utopia - Aristotle: studied science and gov’t - Hippocrates: the “Father of Medicine” - Herodotus: the Father of History - most of what we know @ Egypt & Persian wars comes from him. - Even after winning, the Greeks still feared Persia - so developed a strong army - which helped build strong trade and economy - Athens eventually became leader of more than 200 polis - Sparta feared Athens’ strength - went to war in 431 BCE - lasted 27 years (ended 404 BCE) - Sparta won - but both weakened and no longer powerful - The Golden Age is over - Greek Life - Religion - Gods were a family - Zeus, Hera, Athena, Aphrodite - lived on Mt. Olympus (northern Greece) - controlled peoples’ actions - but also behaved like humans - quarreled, played tricks on each other - were worshiped in temples and home - no priests - no one forced to worship - Schools - Greeks believed education made good citizens - schools were private - read/write/arithmetic/poetry/music/athletics - if rich, private tutors hired - geometry/astronomy/grammar/public speaking - would grow up to be useful citizen -Sports - building bodies just as important as education - running/jumping/boxing/wrestling/discus - would practice in large sports area - gymnasia, Greek for naked - every 4 years, even during war, would gather at polis called Olympia - for Olympic Games - was an honor to win for your polis - Women - had no rights - ruled by fathers till married, then ruled by husbands - married at 15 or 16 - Could see a play or take part in religious ceremonies - but c/n go to party where there were men - wife’s job is to look after home and make clothes - if rich, had a slave to help and protect her - poor women had more active life - did all kinds of jobs - including selling goods at market - Greeks used many slaves to do their work - rich Greeks could own up to 50 slaves - this freed citizens to take part in gov’t or athletics - slaves had to be treated well - but slaves with special skills treated best - some saved up enough money to buy their freedom WORLD HISTORY NOTED 6 THE HELLENISTIC WORLD - Athens’ war w/Sparta ended 404 BCE - weakening both - Some polis continued to fight - to gain control of Greece - the strongest was Macedonia - and it was getting stronger - Macedonia, new nation just north of Greece - were very similar to Greeks - esp. language and religion - Philip II of Macedonia became King at 23 y/o - built a strong army - began to conquer Greek polis’ - by 338 BCE had complete control of Greece - Philip allowed conquered polis’ to run themselves - but he remained leader of all armies and navies - so finally Greece united - but it took Macedonians to do it - Philip planned to use combined armies of Macedonia and Greece to use against the Persian Empire - but he was murdered 336 BCE - at daughter’s wedding, drunken former guard stabbed him - his 20 y/o son Alexander became King - had received a good education - was tutored by Aristotle - was fine soldier, athlete where he met Hephaestion - would be lifelong partners - so Alexander was prepared to be great ruler - if any polis rebelled, he just put it down - he became one of greatest generals of all time - before long, he ruled all of Greece - He set his eyes on his father’s prize, the Persian Empire - they had very large army - but not as well trained as Alexander’s - by 331 BCE conquered all of Asia Minor, Egypt, Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia, and rest of Persian Empire - defeating Darius III at Granicus - But he wanted more...India - so he began to march his soldiers there - but most of them too tired of fighting - forced him to turn back - as Alexander conquered land, he wanted to spread Greek culture, too - wanted to start a “world culture” - based on best ideas of Greek, Persian & Hindu cultures - w/Greek laws & language the basis of this culture - called “Hellenistic Culture” - Hellas = Greece - Hellenistic = like Greece - this period lasted 200 years from 323-133 BCE - Alexander started many colonies all over his empire - settlers introduced Greek language & culture to conquered peoples - They also learned from these conquered peoples - Alexander built new cities and rebuilt old ones - tried to make all people feel they were united - encouraged international marriages - took all religions into his army - set us same $ system throughout empire - easier to trade - would have been nice to see what would have happened - but he died 323 BCE at age 32 - returned to Babylon and contracted fever - his empire divided into 3 parts ruled by 3 generals - Macedonia & Greece to Antigonus - Egypt & Palestine to Ptolemy - The Rest to Seleucus - each general tried to be strong ruler of his part - except for Greece and Macedonia - they continued to make own laws - Hellenistic culture produced important ideas/discoveries - contributions made possible by mixing best ideas of the empire - center of the culture was Alexandria, Egypt - largest city in the Hellenistic world - culture produced great art, writing, science advances - discovered earth was round - learned how to measure earth’s size - discovered earth moves around the sun - Euclid advanced geometry - Archimedes discovered how to weigh matter - law of displacement - “Eureka!” EXERCISE: In a short essay, answer the following questions: Do you think Alexander the Great was a good ruler? How might world history have been different if Alexander had lived for another twenty years?