AP UNITED STATES HISTORY: THE ROARING 20'S PARTS I AND II

- Intolerance and conflict marked postwar society - as soldiers returned home, were greeted by celebration - parades, flag waving, crowds - but they were more interested in getting things back to normal - finding a job and a place to live - both were scarce - war contracts canceled, factories closed - few orders for consumer goods - industry still geared for war material - as for housing, low level of construction during war - at same time there was soaring inflation - prices skyrocketed - Americans complaining about high cost of living - all this caused fear and restlessness - which contributed to intolerance for ethnic and racial differences - as inflation soared, so did union membership - AFL had 2 million members in 1916, doubled by 1920 - organized or not, Americans demanded higher wages - and were prepared to strike to get it - American coal miners organized largest strike in 1919 - during war had agreement with gov’t - in return for inflation related wages, w/n strike - when this agreement ended at end of war miners insisted upon freedom to bargain freely with mine owners - gov’t disagreed, saying war not officially over - angry miners met in Sept. and called for nationalization of mines - United Mine Workers Union led by John L. Lewis represented the miners - went into negotiations for better hours and 60% increase in base pay - when talks broke down, Lewis called for a strike - US Atty Gen. A. Mitchell Palmer got court order - declaring strike illegal - claimed strike was communist plot to bring down gov’t - despite injunction, 450K union members stayed home - meanwhile Lewis had secret negotiations w/gov’t - managed to get 31% increase in pay - but no change in hours or safety - after 10 days, Lewis ordered the members back to work - only 50K refused - because of his work, Lewis made President of UMW - 2nd most powerful figure in union politics - by end of 1919, some 4 million workers participated in 3,000 strikes - nearly all failed - but the strikes did instill a sense of fear and anger against unions - union membership declined in 1920's - largely b/c corps. began to provide benefits for workers - designed to keep workers happy - welfare capitalism - companies introduced pensions, cafeterias, paid vacations, profit-sharing plans, etc. - but American fear of communism d/n fade w/weakening of unions - were obsessed w/communist takeover of gov’t - called it the Red Scare or Red Menace - after the color of the communist flag - symbolizing Marxist revolution - newspapers filled w/stories of reports of strikes & anti-commie riots - people began to take action against anything un-American - ex: Feb 1919 jury acquitted a man of murder - had killed immigrant who said “to hell w/the US” - a series of bombings began to scare the American people - spring 1919 36 mail bombs sent to leading gov’t officials & capitalists - only a couple of them reached their goal - but the bombings brought terror to the American people - one bomb was found at Palmer’s house - with a pamphlet “Plain Words” attached to it - called on working masses to rise up against gov’t - soon after Palmer began campaign against radicalism - Aug. 1919 created General Intelligence Division - part of Justice Dept. - appt’d J. Edgar Hoover as its chief - later he would be head of FBI - at first only job was to get info on politically dangerous people - usually without clear, hard evidence - but began doing more when Sec. of Labor said membership in radical orgs. were grounds for deportation - Palmer used this to go into the deportation business - w/help of police raided meeting places across the country - ripped bldgs apart and seized tons of anarchist literature - ignored search warrants and habeas corpus - Palmer’s people arrested thousands of “aliens” - many of them loyal Americans - many treated roughly and thrown in crowded jails - some beaten until they confessed - even if they were innocent - only a few hundred were actually deported - Palmer was hailed as a hero and began to think about running for office - his anti-communist raids kept his name in the papers - but the facts of the Palmer Raids d/n support need for suppression of civil liberties - few of those arrested were aliens or revolutionaries - the raids had netted some revolutionary pamphlets - but only 3 guns - but his concern of foreign invasion was shared by many Americans - one third of states passed laws designed to punish radicals - against people who advocated violence or took violent action - other Americans believed Palmer Raids were greater threat to civil liberties - 1920 some formed American Civil Liberties Union - challenged constitutionality of laws that violated Bill of Rights - others questioned the motives of Palmer - and his credibility began to suffer - his downfall came in spring of 1920 - first: new Sec. of Labor was appt’d....Louis F. Post - was outraged at Palmer’s lack of order/justice - he cancelled thousands of warrants - released hundreds of people from custody - Palmer then announced a massive communist demonstration coming - in NYC on May 1, Labor Day - American holiday honoring workers - but also symbol of socialism and communism in USSR - Palmer ordered a great show of force, police, fed. Agents - they flooded the city - May 1 came and went, with nothing happening - confidence in Palmer quickly faded - and his raids came to an end - but hostility toward immigrants persisted - books like The Passing of the Great Race were published - warned that Anglo-Saxon citizens were losing their nation - to “twisted...filthy” southern Europeans and Jews - who were un-American - nativism was on the rise - prejudice against immigrants - 2 laws were passed to control immigration - Emergency Quota Act in 1921 - National Origins Act in 1924 - which put immigration quota of 2% of each group counted in 1890 census - S&E Europeans d/n arrive until 1900 - giving advantage to W&N Europeans - ex: GB, IRE c/send 62,574 people/year - Italy only 3,845 - Japan, China, India and other Asian nations 100/yr - newest immigrants came from Mexico and Puerto Rico - many Mexicans were working in agricultural areas of US SW - into cities like Denver, San Antonio, Los Angeles, Tucson - lived in low rent, inner-city districts - where service and conditions were poor - these barrios were rich in culture and tradition - Puerto Ricans moved to American cities in 1920's mostly to NYC - found work in mfrg, hotels, restaurants and domestic service - but like Mexicans, communities had some well-educated professionals - doctors, lawyers, business owners - served as leaders in their ethnic communities - 1920 hostilities came to a head - 2 Italian immigrants accused of robbing shoe store - and killing two people in the process - Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti - the Sacco-Vanzetti Case - both had lied during interrogation - but neither had a criminal record - and none of the stolen money was in their possession - despite weak case, jury found guilty of murder July 21 - they were sentenced to death - to this day no one can say whether they were guilty or not - some say they were killed for their political views - both were anarchists - gov’t unnecessary evil and s/b abolished - also they were persecuted because they were immigrants - both were executed in 1927 - becoming martyrs against bias of foreign born and radicals - on 50th anniv.of death 1977, Dukakis of MA pardoned them - African Americans after WWI - most Blacks were eager to share in prosperity of the 1920's - especially the veterans - more than 350k had served in Europe - had more freedom, less discrimination - because they helped fight for democratic world - their own country would treat them with honor - but that idea quickly faded - the short economic depression after the war caused problems - intense competition for jobs - which helped increase racial tensions - severe housing shortage in the north didn’t help things - white anger/black frustration started new wave of racial probs. - worst of the race riots happened in Chicago - little black boy floating in Lake Michigan - had crossed imaginary line sep. whites and blacks - he was hit by a rock allegedly by a white man - knocked out, then drowned - fighting broke out on the beach - and spread to city that night - after 5 days of violence 6K national guards called out - in the end, 38 people killed, 537 injured - 1,000 African Americans left homeless - homes destroyed by white mobs - despite this intolerance, Blacks continued to move to the North - by 1930 some 2.5 million had left the south for a better life - in many cities, whites moved out as neighborhoods filled w/blacks - racial segregation became est. in many cities - including Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, NYC - Harlem, a black neighborhood, attracted many of these migrants - used to be primarily white, well to do - by 1930 many of the whites had fled - replaced by 195,000 African Americans - result was overcrowding, housing shortages, rising rents - Harlem became a ghetto - a segregated slum which began to appear in US after WWI - most homes a one room kitchenette - typical owner w/take 7 room apt & rent to whites for $50/mo. - he w/divide it into 7 separate apts - each w/small gas stove and one small sink - then rent to African Americans for $42/mo - bringing in 6X as much rent - sometimes 5-6 people lived together in these apts - so one toilet had to serve 30 or more tenants - to help w/costs, there began a new kind of ghetto entertainment - rent parties - cost of admission from a nickel to a quarter - which went to the host’s rent - there would be sales of illegal liquor and home made food - in Harlem, these rent parties were wild affairs - these ghetto hardships began a new feeling of African American militancy - one central figure was Marcus Garvey, a Jamaican immigrant - founded Universal Negro Improvement Association in Jamaica 1914 - said white majority in US w/never treat blacks fairly - urged blacks to look w/in their own culture for dignity/pride - and abandon efforts at winning white approval - thousands answered Garvey’s call for solidarity - Aug. 1920 thousands paraded behind him in NYC - he was dressed in a purple,green,black uniform w/gold braids on shoulders - w/huge hat with white feathers - Garvey’s efforts led to creation of black businesses - including restaurants, groceries - and a company that made black dolls for children - 1919 Garvey had 4 million paying dues to his organization - set up Black Star Line Steamship Company - to provide transport for “Back to Africa” movement - but this was never realized - 1923 company went bankrupt - Garvey was tried/convicted of defrauding followers - sent to prison and later deported - other leaders called for equality rather than return to Africa - and their movement grew stronger after Garvey’s collapse - NAACP (started 1909) led struggle for civil rights - W.E.B. DuBois became respected speaker in both the black and white communities - but the fight for equal rights and justice had only just begun U S. HISTORY: THE 1920'S, PART II - because of influx of Jews, Catholics and Afro-Ams from South - threatened traditionalist rural white Anglo Saxon Protestants - many would participate in fierce anti-immigrant campaigns - also against evolution and alcohol - the KKK returned shortly after WWI - had been brought back to life 1915 by William J. Simmons - 35 year old ex-Methodist minister and soldier - helped by ad specialists Eliz. Tyler & Edward Young Clark - went around the country selling memberships @ $10 ea. - molded their pitches to fit the clientele - were successful at “selling people their own prejudices” - the Klan had not changed much since the Civil War - still white robes, burning crosses, secret rituals - but was no longer limited to the South - grew in small towns in mid-west, SE, and far West - as well as rapidly urbanizing South and Midwest - also not only attacking African Americans - now after Jews, Catholics, foreigners - anyone who d/n conform to Klan’s moral standards - alcoholics, adulterers, criminals - wanted to restore “100% pure Americanism” - they began a campaign of terrorism, beating, mutilation, murder - by 1925 had membership of 5 million men - including 5 Senators and 4 governors - Aug. 1925, 50k marched down streets to capital in Wash. DC - right past the White House - but as quickly as it rose, the Klan fell out of favor - but not b/c of rejection of prejudice and terror - b/c members began to see hypocrisy and greed in its leaders - had pocketed millions in dues - prominent leader in Indiana had committed murder - sexually assaulted and killed a young woman - by 1930 membership had dwindled to 9,000 men - another popular target of traditionalists was alcohol - which prompted the passing of an amendment - many pointed to physical and emotional dangers of drinking - openly linked alcohol w/corrupt politicians, immigrants - both of which gathered in working class saloons - traditionalists turned to the Anti-Saloon League - led by Wayne B. Wheeler - had been started 1895 by evangelical Protestant churches - Wheeler recruited many to his cause - by 1914 had 23 states ban alcohol - known as going dry - some states to this day are still dry - UT, NC - by 1916 was primary issue in nationwide state elections - with WWI, prohibition took on new urgency and patriotic tone - people began to link beer with the enemy - most breweries had German names to them - distilleries were closed - to save food and fuel supplies - banned sale, mfr., transport of “intoxicating liquor” - Dec. 1917 Congress passed the 18th Amendment - but did not forbid the drinking of it - by Jan. 1919 necessary 36 states had ratified it - and went into effect one year later - beginning the Prohibition Era - to enforce it, Congress passed the Volstead Act - which contained a long list of exemptions to prohibition - including allowances for religious and medical uses - the Treasury Dept. named to enforce the law - but financial support was minimal - when Volstead Act became law, most Ams became voluntary lawbreakers - neighborhood saloons and night clubs shut down - but secret clubs sprang up everywhere - speakeasies - knock on door and give the password - but do it “speaking easy” (i.e. whisper) - was a place to drink and socialize - police knew where they were but tended to ignore them - often in return for payoffs or free drinks - or both - agents willing to turn their eyes away often became wealthy - the more notorious driving limos and wearing diamond rings - Americans were determined to drink, and agents powerless to stop them - some parts of the country completely ignored the 18th amendment - restaurants in SF and Boston old wine w/o problems - smuggling, producing liquor became big business - people built stills and concocted bathtub gin - actually made in gallon jugs - lawbreaking reached every level of society - Pres. Warren Harding served liquor to poker friends - had been confiscated by feds - was delivered in Wells Fargo armored truck - most Americans thought speakeasies and bootleg liquor an adventure - but organized crime took it seriously - saw profits to be made from rebellion against Volstead Act - gangsters took control of production, distribution - built extensive money making orgs. - violence was often the answer to competition - trucks carrying liquor often hijacked - competitors gunned down in broad daylight - in Chicago, murder became common - was stomping ground of perhaps most famous gangster - Al “Scarface” Capone - flaunted wealth in front of frustrated police - at least those not on his payroll - wore lime green suits, silk ties - drove custom-made armor plated Cadillac - used press to cultivate image of wealth and power - IRS calculated took in $105 million in 1927 - from alcohol, gambling, prostitution - gangsters only stopped fighting each other when battling the feds - b/t 1920-1928 135 gangsters, 55 feds lost their lives - federal effort to catch Capone most involved, dangerous jobs - Elliot Ness led team against Capone - team called “The Untouchables” - for unwillingness to take bribes - Ness won when Capone convicted for tax evasion - sentenced to prison (Alcatraz) - so besides increasing crime, Prohibition failed to change Ams drinking habit - 1929 Pres. Hoover appt’d Atty. Gen. Geo. W. Wickersham - to head commission to investigate its effectiveness - the report was inconclusive, contradictory - said prohibition a failure b/c public indifferent to it - but said it should continue - a NY newspaper parodied the report - “Prohibition is an awful flap, We like it We can’t stop what it’s meant to stop We like it It’s left a trail of graft and slime It’s filled our land with vice and crime It don’t prohibit worth a dime Nevertheless, we’re for it” - pressure to repeal the amendment grew - 1932 Hoover reluctantly abandoned support for it - by Dec. 1933, 21st amendment repealing it was ratified - prohibition lasted more than 10 years - alcohol consumption did decline - so did number of deaths due to alcohol - but benefits failed to convince gov’t had right to violate personal liberties - many who opposed alcohol also opposed evolution - fundamentalism gained strength in the 1920's - the belief in a literal interpretation of the Bible - most came from Baptist, Methodist or Presbyterian backgrounds - 1925 TN passed law making teaching evolution a crime - “may not teach any theory that denies the story of the Divine Creation of man as taught in the Bible, and to teach instead that man has descended from a lower order of animals.” - no one paid much attention to the law...w/n c/n be enforced - but had caught the attention of the ACLU - set out to find a test case to challenge it - John Scopes, biology teacher in Dayton, TN, brought to trial 1925 - had deliberately taught evolution in school - defense led by Clarence Darrow - famous trial lawyer and agnostic - prosecution led by William Jennings Bryan - fundamentalist and 3X runner for President - the trial played out like a circus - stands selling lemonade, hot dogs outside crowded court - little cotton apes appeared in windows - was first trial to be carried on radio - loudspeakers blared to crowd outside court - media sent news out to rest of the country - Scopes guilt was never much of an issue, after all, he DID break the law - question was really did state have right to forbid teaching of evolution - Darrow brought scientists as expert witness that evolution was true - judge said evidence inadmissable - scientists were not around when lower life evolved to man - Darrow’s case seemed to be lost - but in brilliant flash of inspiration, took another path - called Bryan to the stand himself - confronted w/Darrows sarcastic questions - about God and religion - Bryan claimed unshakable faith in literal truth of Bible - Darrow ridiculed Bryan’s testimony -“ fool ideas that no intelligent Christian on earth believes” - Bryan held his own - “better to believe in the rock of ages than the ages of rocks” - Scopes was convicted and fined $100 - though TN Sup. Ct. set it aside on a technicality - but Scopes Monkey Trial exposed intolerance in America in 1920's - and like Red Scare, prohibition and KKK, fundamentalism declined - racists c/n compete with realities of rapidly urbanizing society